Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) revolutionized astronomy and improved upon the works of previous astronomers (including Copernicus and Tycho) in multiple ways. Kepler was able to develop a mathematical model of the universe that was heliocentric and was both more accurate and simpler than that of Ptolemy, whose geocentric model with epicycles and deferents had reigned for well over a millennium. Kepler did so by allowing orbits of celestial bodies to be ellipses, not circles, as he framed in his first law of planetary motion. Kepler’s second law relates his discovery of planets’ changing velocities, as they tend to move faster as they become closer to the gravitational source. Lastly, his third law describes a mathematical relationship between the length of an orbit and the object’s distance from the gravitational source.

The Protestant Reformation (1517 – 1600) resulted in the division of Western Christianity into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, and led to a significant reevaluation of Christian beliefs and traditions for those who split off from the Catholic Church. The Thirty Years’ War (1618 – 1648) was a series of battles fought mostly over modern-day Germany which resulted in diminished power and influence for Spain and increased power and influence for France.

William Shakespeare (April 26, 1564 – April 23, 1616) was a widely successful poet, playwright, dramatist, and actor who lived in England, and whose works (including Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Macbeth) are still very popular to this day.

Learning this context helped me realize how many events and transformations were happening at the time of the Copernican Revolution beyond just that of science and astronomy. Christianity was forever changed by the Protestant Reformation, the politics and powers of Europe were reorganized at the conclusion of the 30 Years War, and at the same time lived who is often recognized as the world’s greatest playwright, William Shakespeare. All of these, in addition to the Copernican Revolution, happened at roughly the same time five centuries ago in different corners of Europe, and yet all had massive consequences still observed today. The 1500s and early 1600s were truly a transformative time for Europe, and left impacts in astronomy, religion, politics, literature, and many other disciplines.