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Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
A review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus
Vernonia (Asteraceae)
Q1
Ngeh J. Toyang a,b,n, Rob Verpoorte c
a
Virgin Botanicals & Biotech Inc. Columbia, MD, USA
Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
c
Natural Products Laboratory, Institute of Biology, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 30 July 2012
Received in revised form
22 January 2013
Accepted 22 January 2013
Ethnopharmacological relevance: The Vernonia genus has about one thousand species and members of
the genus are widely used as food and medicine. The aim of this review is to analyze published data
on the ethnomedicinal, ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognostic uses of plants of the Vernonia genus.
This will help to identify the state of ethnopharmacological knowledge in regard to this genus and to
propose future research priorities.
Materials and methods: The major scientific databases including SciFinder, Sciencedirect, Medline and
Google Scholar were queried for information on Vernonia genus using various keyword combinations.
The International Plant Name Index was also used to verify the names of species and authors.
Results: A total of 109 Vernonia species were reported in the literature to have medicinal properties.
One hundred and five (105) plants were linked to the treatment or management of 44 human diseases
or health conditions. Plants of the genus also feature in ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognostic
practices. A total of 12 vernonia species were identified to be used in ethnoveterinary medicine while
2 species are used in self medication practices by chimpanzees and gorillas. In vitro and in vivo research
studies reporting the validation of the medicinal properties of some species were also reviewed. One
hundred and three bioactive compounds isolated from various Vernonia species were also identified.
Vernonia amygdalina was identified as the most frequently used member of the Vernonia genus.
The Vernolides, a class of sesquiterpene lactone were identified as the most studied compounds from
the genus and show interesting bioactivity in antiplasmodial, antileishmanial, antischistosomial,
cytotoxicity, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory assays.
Conclusion: This review reveals that the genus Vernonia is endowed with many medicinal plants some
of which have potential for the discovery of new drugs. On the basis of results from a combination of
in vitro and in vivo efficacy and toxicity studies reported, Vernonia amygdalina holds the most promise
for development into a nutraceutical against diabetes and malaria while Vernonia cinerea has potential
against cancer and inflammatory conditions. Vernolide A is so far the most promising single agent from
a Vernonia species that has potential for development into an anticancer agent. The other Vernonia
species and isolated compounds require further studies to ascertain their medicinal potentials.
& 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Vernonia
Asteraceae
Medicinal plant
Ethnomedicine
Ethnoveterinary medicine
Zoopharmacognosy
Phytochemistry
Contents
1.
Introduction to the genus Vernonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.
3.
Review methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.
Ethnopharmacological uses of Vernonia species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.1.
Vernonia adoensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.2.
Vernonia aemulans Vatke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
n
Corresponding author at: Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Room S421, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
Tel.: þ1 410 706 1062; fax: þ 1 410 706 5664.
E-mail address: ntoyang@som.umaryland.edu (N.J. Toyang).
0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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N.J. Toyang, R. Verpoorte / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
3.1.3.
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.1.6.
3.1.7.
3.1.8.
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3.1.11.
3.1.12.
3.1.13.
3.1.14.
3.1.15.
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3.1.19.
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3.1.21.
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3.1.24.
3.1.25.
3.1.26.
3.1.27.
3.1.28.
3.1.29.
3.1.30.
3.1.31.
3.1.32.
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3.1.34.
3.1.35.
3.1.36.
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3.1.74.
Vernonia albicans DC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia ambigua Kotschy & Peyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia ampandrandavensis Humbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia amygdalina Del. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Synonym Centhraterum anthelminticum
Vernonia appendiculata Less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia arborea Buch.- Ham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia aristifera S.F. Blake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia auriculifera Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia bahamensis Griseb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia betonicaefolia Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia biafrae Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia blumeoides Hook. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia brasiliana (L.) Druce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia brazzavillensis Aubrév. Ex Compe re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia calvoana Hook. F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia campeana S. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia canescens HBK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia chalybaea Mart. ex DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia chapelieri Drake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia chinensis Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cinerascens Sch. Bip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cistifolia O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cognata Less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia colorata Drake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia condensata Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia conferta Benth.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cruda Klatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia cumingiana Benth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia deppeana Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia extensa DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia fasciculata Michx.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia fastigiata Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia ferruginea Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia filigera Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia fontinalis S. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia galamensis Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia gerberiformis Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia glaberrima Welw. ex O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia glabra (Steetz) Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia grantii Oliv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia guineensis Benth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia herbacea Rusby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia hildebrandtii Vatke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia hirsuta (DC.) Sch. Bip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Hochst. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia hymenolepis Vatke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia incana Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia jugalis Oliv. & Hiern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia karaguensis Oliv. & Hiern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia kenteocephala Baker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. Synonym Baccharoides adoensis
Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia leiocarpa DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia leopoldii Vatke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia macrocyanus O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia mapirensis Gleason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia mespilifolia Less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia miombicola Wild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia mollissima D. Don ex Hook. & Arn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia myriantha Hook. F.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia natalensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia nestor S. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia nigritiana Oliv. & Hiern.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia noveboracensis (L.) Willd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia nudicaulis Less.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia oligocephala Edgew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia oocephala Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vernonia pachyclada Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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3
3.1.75. Vernonia patens Kunth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.76. Vernonia patula Mart. ex DC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.77. Vernonia pectoralis Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.78. Vernonia perrottetii Sch. Bip. ex Walp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.79. Vernonia pogosperma Klatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.80. Vernonia polyanthes Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.81. Vernonia polytricholepis Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.82. Vernonia poskeana Vatke & Hildeb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.83. Vernonia potamophila Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.84. Vernonia prolytricholepsis Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.85. Vernonia pumila Kotschy & Peyr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.86. Vernonia rhodolepsis Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.87. Vernonia roxburghii Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.88. Vernonia saligna DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.89. Vernonia scorpioides Pers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.90. Vernonia senegalensis Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.91. Vernonia serratuloides Kunth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.92. Vernonia smithiana Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.93. Vernonia spiciforma Klatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.94. Vernonia staehelinoides Mart. ex Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.95. Vernonia stellullifera (Benth.) C. Jeffrey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.96. Vernonia stenocephala Oliv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.97. Vernonia stipulacea Klatt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.98. Vernonia subuligera O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.99. Vernonia tenoreana Oliv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.100. Vernonia teres Wall ex DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.101. Vernonia thomsoniana Oliv. & Hiern ex Oliv. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.102. Vernonia tigna Klatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.103. Vernonia trichoclada Gleason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.104. Vernonia trichodesma Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.105. Vernonia tweedieana Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.106. Vernonia undulata Oliv. & Hiern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.107. Vernonia usambarensis O. Hoffm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.108. Vernonia venosa S. Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.109. Vernonia zeylanica Less. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.
In vitro activity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.
In vivo activity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4.
Clinical trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5.
Toxicity aspects of the Vernonia genus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6.
Phytochemistry of the Vernonia genus: Bioactive compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6.1.
Alkaloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6.2.
Flavonoids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6.3.
Terpenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6.4.
Miscellaneous compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4. Conclusion and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1.
Planning future ethnopharmacological studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.
Selection of species for further studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3.
Selection of compounds for further studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.
Assay selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5.
Sample collection and preparation for screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6.
Toxicity and safety studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.7.
Phytochemical, metabolomic analysis and quality issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Uncited references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. Introduction to the genus Vernonia
Vernonia (Asteraceae) is the largest genus in the tribe Vernoniae with close to 1000 species (Keeley and Jones, 1979). The
genus Vernonia is named after William Vernon, an English
botanist who collected and identified this genus in Maryland in
the late 1600s before his death in 1711 (Quattrocchi, 1999). The
genus is distributed both in the New and Old Worlds although it
is to be found mostly in the tropical regions. Vernonia species
grow in a wide range of habitats of broad ecological diversity and
climatic conditions including tropical forest, marshes and wet
areas, dry plains, tropical savannahs, desert xeric or dry sites and
even frosty regions of eastern North America (Gleason, 1923;
Keeley and Jones, 1979). The genus is morphologically made up of
annuals, herbaceous perennials, lianas, shrubs, and trees.
The genus Vernonia is known for having several species
with food, medicinal and industrial uses. For example,
Vernonia. amygdalina, and Vernonia colorata, are eaten as leafy
vegetables (Burkill, 1985; Iwu, 1993). Vernonia species frequently
used in ethnomedicine include, Vernonia amygdalina, Vernonia
condensata, Vernonia cineria, Vernonia guineensis and Vernonia
conferta. Vernonia galamensis is used industrially for its seed oil
contents.
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Vernonia amygdalina is the most studied member of the
2
Vernonia genus as well as one of the most studied plants in Africa
3 Q3 (Ijeh and Ejike 2011). Vernonia amygdalina (Fig. 1) is a shrub of the
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savannah as well as forest areas throughout tropical Africa
5
(Burkill, 1985). This species and Vernonia colorata are very similar
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in appearance and are not easily distinguished. Vernonia amygda7
lina leaves have a characteristic odour and a bitter taste, which
8
can be reduced by boiling and discarding the water or soaking and
9
washing in several changes of water before consumption. Analysis
10
showed that the plant is rich in nutrients including amino acids,
11
minerals and vitamins (Alabi et al., 2005; Ejoh et al., 2007;
12
Eleyinmi et al., 2008). The nutritional composition of Vernonia
13
amygdalina is presented in Table 1.
14
Despite the widespread use of plants of the Vernonia genus in
15
food and medicine, to the best of our knowledge, no comprehen16
sive review has before been carried out to document and analyse
17
the contributions of this genus to the nutrition and health of
18
humans and animals in domestic or wild settings. Johri and Singh
19
(1997) reported a review of the medicinal uses of Vernonia species
20
in which 6 species were identified and reviewed in detail while
21
about 20 other species were indicated to be featured in various
22
traditional materia medica with little additional details. To fill this
23
gap, this paper reviews the state of knowledge on the ethnome24
dicinal, ethnoveterinary, zoopharmacognostical, pharmacological
25
evaluation and chemical diversity within the Vernonia genus and
26
proposes strategies for further research to confirm claimed tradi27
tional uses as well as identify species and isolated compounds
28
worthy of further research and development into medicines.
29
30
31
2. Review methodology
32
33
34
a. Literature search: Relevant literature was collected by search35
ing the major scientific databases including SciFinder, Scien36
cedirect, Medline and Google Scholar. Table 2 presents the
37
results of the keyword search from the above databases. We
38
are also aware of the fact that these databases are updated
39
routinely and the data presented in Table 2 is just indicative of
40
the information that was available at the time this paper was
41
being prepared.
42
b. Selection of relevant publications: Two major criteria were used
43
for the selection of relevant references for use in this review.
44
45
i. Folk use: For folk uses, all publications that could be
46
accessed with any information on the ethnomedicinal,
47
ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognostical uses of Vernonia
48
were considered useful. Restrictions as to the popularity of
49
impact factor of the journal or source were not made because
50
most of such publications are based on the documentation
51
of oral traditions and even a letter detailing the folk use of a
52
remedy could prove valuable.
53
ii. In vitro and in vivo confirmation studies: In regard to the
54
confirmation of claimed folk medicinal uses of Vernonia and
55
the bioactive compounds isolated from this genus, only
56
papers that provided complete plant identity including
57
information on the collection and deposition of a voucher
58
specimen, and disease description for correlation with
59
western diagnosis were selected for use in this review.
60
In addition, any other species that were not reported to be
61
used in folk medicine but were reported to be having
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bioactivity based on in vitro or in vivo studies have been
63
included in this review just to expand the knowledge base
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on the bioactivity of this genus.
65
Sciencedirect provided the most related articles while Medline
66
gave the fewest related articles. Google Scholar suggested the
highest number of articles per search phrase but at least 70–
90% of the suggested articles were out of topic and as such
made the sorting of the related from the unrelated articles a
tedious task. The keyword search phrases; Vernonia medicinal
uses, Vernonia medicinal plants and bioactive compounds from
Vernonia suggested most of the articles referenced in this
review. Even within these keyword search phrases, only about
40–60% of the articles suggested were useful in this review
which has over 400 references out of over 900 papers, books or
abstracts reviewed. In terms of journal contribution to this
review, the Journal of Ethnopharmacology provided the highest
number (100 articles) of journal articles carrying information
on the ethnopharmacology of the Vernonia genus.
c. Validation of plant names: The International Plant Name Index
(www.ipni.org) and the Kew Botanic Garden Plant name
database were used to validate plant scientific names. This
helped to identify misspellings and the use of synonyms for
different species. Author names were also confirmed through
this process.
3. Results and discussion
Plants of the genus Vernonia are widely used in ethnomedicine,
ethnoveterinary medicine and in zoopharmacognosy especially
by chimpanzees and gorillas. A total of 109 species of Vernonia
have been identified to be used in folk medicine or bioactive. One
hundred and three of the species are used in ethnomedicine while
twelve of the species are used in ethnoveterinary medicine. Only
2 of the species are used in zoopharmacognosy. Also, 2 of the
species listed out of the 109 did not have any application in folk
use or zoopharmacognosy. Two of the plants were reported to be
used in ethnoveterinary medicine alone. Folk uses of Vernonia
species have been reported in all the continents with the exception of Antartica, Australia and Europe (Table 3). Amongst the
different Vernonia species, Vernonia amygdalina, Vernonia cinerea,
Vernonia colorata, Vernonia guineensis and Vernonia kotschyana are
the top five most frequently used species.
Detailed description on the ethnomedicinal uses of plants of the
genus Vernonia are listed in Table 3 while those used in ethnoveterinary medicine and zoopharmacognosy are listed in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 6a (in vitro studies) and Table 6b (in vivo studies) presents a
summary of the studies carried out to ascertain the medicinal
properties of plants of this genus. Ninety bioactive compounds
isolated from species of the genus are presented in Tables 7 and 8
while Fig. 2 illustrates the chemical structures of these compounds.
Despite the fact that these compounds were reported to be active,
only a small number of the compounds will be considered active
going by industry standard where EC50 r10 mM is the reference for
activity of pure compounds (Gertsch, 2009). As for crude extracts,
activity standard can be very variable since the concentration of the
active compound in the crude is what will determine whether there
is activity or no activity even when the activity is as a result of
synergism.
Recent research into ethnoveterinary medicine practices has
resulted in the documentation of many plant species used by
farmers to control or treat diseases affecting their livestock.
Interestingly, some of the ethnoveterinary and zoopharmacognosy uses of plants do correspond with the uses of the same
plants in humans. A good example is the use of Vernonia
amygdalina to control gastrointestinal parasites in both animals
and man as stated by different informants (Huffman, 1997;
Mølgaard et al., 2001; Toyang et al., 2007; Yeap et al., 2010).
Similarly, researchers have recorded the use of Vernonia amygdalina in self-medication practices amongst chimpanzees to relief
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Table 2
Results of keyword/phrase search for Vernonia.
Keyword/phrase
Number of hits
SciFinder Sciencedirect Medline Google
Scholar
Vernonia
1230
Vernonia genus
76
Vernonia species
92
Vernonia medicinal uses
34
Ethnomedicinal uses of
3
Vernonia
Vernonia medicinal plants
61
Vernonia and
1
ethnoveterinary medicine
Vernonia and
2
zoopharmacognosy
Bioactive compounds from
43
Vernonia
Fig. 1. Vernonia amygdalina Del. picture.
Table 1
Nutritional composition of Vernonia amygdalina
Del. Leaves.
Per 100 g dry weight
Value
a
Proximate values
Moisture (%)
Dry matter (%)
Crude protein (g)
Digestible protein (g)
Total carbohydrate (g)
Ash (g)
Reducing sugar (g)
Dietary fibre (g)
Total lipids
Energy (Kcal)
79.92
20.08
19.23
16.58
68.35
7.72
14.31
25.47
4.70
392.67
Vitamins and mineralsa
Vitamin C (mg/100 g)
Carotenoids (mg/100 g)
Ca (mg/100 g)
Fe (mg/100 g)
Bioavailable Fe (mg)
Average nutritive value
Oxalic acid (mg/100 g)
Polyphenols (mg/100 g)
Saponins (mg/100 g)
166.5
30.0
97.0
7.52
2.84
1.10
5.36
9.75
1.425
Sugar contentsb
Raffinose
Lactose
Sucrose
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose
Maltose
Arabinose
a
b
5.1
2.61
13.20
7.20
6.56
6.00
7.24
9.25
Ejoh et al. (2007).
Alabi et al. (2005).
stomach ache including controlling worm infestation (Huffman
and Seifu, 1989; Huffman et al., 1993).
In regard to chemical diversity, plants of the Vernonia genus
are the source of many terpene type compounds particularly
1241
460
980
425
45
222
6
41
0
0
17,500
6,050
11,600
3,690
3,300
459
34
62
1
3,370
158
11
0
80
230
8
813
sesquiterpenes (Chaturvedi, 2011). Flavonoids have also been isolated
from some members of the Vernonia genus (Igile et al., 1994; Ku et al.,
2002). Even though alkaloids have been reported to be present in
some species (Eyong et al., 2011) of the Vernonia genus, no specific
alkaloid has so far been isolated from any Vernonia species.
A number of difficulties were encountered putting together this
review. The first difficulty had to do with deciding which papers
carried validated ethnomedicinal data and which ones did not.
However, we decided to include all published ethnomedicinal data
in regard to the Vernonia genus so long as the source was properly
identified. This is because information on the ethnomedicinal uses of
plants mostly comes from oral history and as such often require
validation based on independent use verifications or clinical trials. In
the absence of clinical trials, in vitro/in vivo studies may be used as a
preliminary step to lend support to folk medicinal uses of plants. In
regard to various biological activity studies carried out, it was also
difficult determining the cut off dose for activity as different authors
tested formulations at different concentrations even when testing the
same plant species for the same biological activity. It is noteworthy to
state that validation implies testing for activity in an in vivo model
comparable to the one used in folk medicine. Another difficulty
encountered is that in some cases only abstracts were found. It was
not possible to include such studies without additional details.
Publications made in other languages without English abstracts might
have also been missed since the keyword search in the databases
listed above was performed in English.
Ethnopharmacological uses of Vernonia species included in this
review are presented below:
3.1. Ethnopharmacological uses of Vernonia species
The following section presents a review of ethnopharmacological uses of Vernonia species. More details on the uses of these
species and the associated references are indicated in Tables 4–6a.
3.1.1. Vernonia adoensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp.
Vernonia adoensis is used in folk medicine to treat chronic
cough and fever (Hutchings et al., 1996), tuberculosis and gonorrhea (Burkill, 1985; Kisangau et al., 2007a), malaria (Stangeland
et al., 2010), HIV/AIDS (Lamorde et al., 2010), wounds and snake
bites (Ragunathan and Solomon, 2009). In ethnoveterinary medicine, this species is used to treat sores (Burkill, 1985). A number
of in vitro studies have so far been carried to confirm the activity
of this species. The most interesting results obtained concern the
antiplasmodial activity where an IC50 value of 2.14 mg/ml was
recorded (Stangeland et al., 2010) and antimycobacterium activity
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Table 3
Ethnomedicinal uses of Vernonia species.
Vernonia species
Part used
Country or region
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
adoensis Sch. Bip. exWalp
L
R
South Africa
Nigeria, Tanzania
Hutchings et al. (1996)
Burkill (1985) (S)
N/I
L
L
L, R
L
L
L
L
AP
L
L
Sudan
Uganda
Uganda
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Rwanda
Rwanda
Rwanda
Madagascar
India
Cameroon
R
W
AP
N/I
L
N/I
L
L
L, R
Tanzania
Nigeria
Madagascar
Nigeria
Ghana
Cameroon
Cameroon
Sao Tome & Principe
Nigeria
Uganda
Chronic coughs, fever
Digestive/appetizer, stomach pain, TB, gonorrhoea,
blotches
Bacteria
Malaria
HIV/AIDS infection
Wounds, snake bite
TB
Bacterial and virus infection
Gonorhoea
Bacteria
Febrifuge
Earache
Male/female sterility (pelvic inflammatory disease,
low sperm count) Gonorrhoea, impotence,
postpartum pains, dysmenorrhoea
Coughs and colds
Malaria
Malaria
Fever
malaria
Malaria
Piles, poor digestion, poisoning, diabetes
Malaria
Measles
Induce labour in childbirth
N/I
L, R
Tanzania
DR Congo
R, L
L
St, R
R
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L, R
L
L
L
L
L, R, B
Kenya
Nigeria
Uganda
Zimbabwe
Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria
Ethiopia
Rwanda
Nigeria
Nigeria
Ghana
Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Cameroon
Ethiopia
D.R Congo
L
L
R
R
L
L, R
Uganda
Uganda
Cameroon
South Africa
Uganda
West Africa
L
Tanzania
L
L
L
S
S
WP
WP
Rwanda
Nigeria
Nigeria
India
India
India
India
N/I
India
appendiculata Less
arborea Buch. Ham
L
L
Madagascar
India
aristifera S.F. Blake
auriculifera Hiern
R
L
Mexico
Ethiopia
aemulans Vatke Oesterr.
albicans DC.
ambigua Kotschy & Pery.
ampandrandavensis Bak.
amygdalina Del.
anthelmintica Willd.
Malaria, back ache, chickenpox,
Diarrhoea, dysentery, gastroenteritis, malaria,
hepatitis, worms
Diarrhoea, stomach ache
Haemorrhoid, hypertension
Fever/malaria
Sexually transmitted diseases
Diabetes
Pile, stomachic, diarrhoea, hypertension
Diabetes mellitus
Headache
Diarrhea, hepatitis, malaria
Diabetes, itching
Antisickling
Dermatitis
Worms
Tonsilitis
Diarrhoea, enteritis, colic
Menstrual cramps
Tapeworm, ascaris, stomach-ache
Diarrhoea, dysentery, gastroenteritis, malaria,
hepatitis, worms
Malaria, worms, skin problems
Tuberculosis
Impotence
Infertility, amenorrhoea
Malaria
Fevers, laxative, cough, ringworm, appetizer, worms,
diarrhoea, rheumatism, schistosomiasis, aphrodisiac
Skin rashes, Chronic diarhhoea, Herpes zoster, Herpes
simplex, Cryptococcal meningitis.
Malaria
Wounds
Circumcision ounds
Diabetes mellitus
Anthelmintic, stomachic, diuretic
intestinal disorders, fever, skin ailments
fever, athsma, cough, ulcer, skin, leucoderma, leprosy,
dyspepsea, inflammation, astrigent, worms,
expectorant, demulcent, diuretic, stomachic,
febrifuge, galatogue, tonic, purgative
Worms, asthma, kidney conditions, piles,
conjunctivitis
Febrifuge
Wound healing, worms, fever, sprue, jaundice,
rheumatic pain
Dysentary, hypermenorrhage
Toothache
Al Magboul et al. (1988)
Stangeland et al. (2010)
Lamorde et al. (2010)
Ragunathan and Solomon (2009)
Kisangau et al. (2007b)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Van Puyvelde et al. (1983)
Vermani and Garg 2002
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Rai and Lalramnghinglova (2011)
Focho et al. (2009b)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Builders et al. (2011)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Tor-Anyiin et al. (2003)
Asase et al. (2010)
Betti (2004)
Jiofack et al. (2010)
Madureira et al. (2002)
Sonibare et al. (2009)
Kamatenesi-Mugisha and OryemOriga (2007)
Moshi et al. (2010)
Longanga et al. (2000)
Geissler et al. (2002)
Lawal et al. (2010)
Ssegawa and Kasenene (2007)
Kambizi and Afolayan (2001)
Gbolade (2009)
Mensah et al. (2008)
Ogbera et al. (2010)
Giday et al. (2010)
Cos et al. (2002)
Ajibesin et al. (2008)
Egunyomi et al. (2009)
Pesewu et al. (2008)
Wondimu et al. (2007)
Teklehaymanot (2009)
Noumi and Yomi (2001)
Fonge et al. (2012)
Teklehaymanot et al. (2007)
Otshudi et al. (2000)
Namukobe et al. (2011)
Tabuti et al. (2010)
Focho et al. (2009a)
Van Wyk and Gericke (2000)
Tabuti (2008)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Kisangau etal. (2007b)
Ramathal and Ngassapa (2001)
Adetutu et al. (2011)
Mboto et al. (2009)
Rao et al. (2010)
Joy et al. (1998)
Kumar et al. (2011)
Parekh and Chanda (2007, 2008)
Johri et al. (1995)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Manjunatha et al. (2005)
Heinrich (1996) (S)
Giday et al. (2009)
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Table 3 (continued )
Vernonia species
Part used
Country or region
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
bahamensis Griseb.
betonicaefolia Bak.
biafrae Oliv. & Hiern
blumeoides Hook. F.
brachycalyx O. Hoffm.
L
R
B
L
AP
L
N/I
L
L
L, R
L, R
Cameroon
Uganda
Uganda
Bahamas
Madagascar
W. Africa
Nigeria
Tanzania
Kenya
Kenya
Brazil
Focho et al. (2009a)
Freiburghaus et al. (1996)
Namukobe et al. (2011)
Gupta et al. (1993)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Burkill (1985)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Moshi et al. (2010)
Oketch-Rabah et al. (1997)
Oketch-Rabah et al. (1998)
Rodrigues (2007)
L
Congo
Cataract
Sleeping sickness
Placenta removal
Jaundice
Febrifuge
Headache, fever, filarial, iritis, abscess
Malaria
Back ache, chicken pox
Malaria
Malaria, stomachache, purgative
Exact use not indicated except mention that it is
prescribed in low doses because it is poisonous
Malaria
L
L
F, L
L, Fl
L, R
AP
WP
L, Rhizomes
Cameroon
Uganda
Uganda
Bahamas
Brazil
Madagascar
China
Pakistan
Focho et al. (2009b)
Ssegawa and kasenene (2007)
Hamill et al. (2003)
Gupta et al. (1993)
Albuquerque et al. (2007)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Xie 1975
Hussain et al. (2010)
leaves
WP
N/I
Tanzania
India
India
L
India
Nigeria
Equatoria Guinea
Tanzania
Navel aches, constipation
Stomach ache and fever
Fever/malaria
Bleeding, inflammation, enema
Edema, liver
Malaria
Colds, headache, bacteria, wound
Gastritis, Urinary infections, Male sterility, navelaches constipation and internal ulcers
Skin infections, mental disorders, depression
Astringent, diaphoretic, antirheumatic
Worms, asthma, kidney conditions, piles,
conjunctivitis
Malaria
Fever
Febrifuge, vermifuge
Cholera, dysentery, constipation, fever, impotency,
lactation, malaria, night blindness, piles, skin
diseases, threadworm, spleen complaints and
wounds
Malaria, fever
brasiliana (L.) Druce
brazzavillensis Aubrév. ex
Compe re
calvoana Hook. F.
campanea S. Moore
canescens HBK
chalybaea Mart. ex DC
chapalieri Drak.
chinensis Less.
cinerascens Sch.Bip
cinerea (L.) Less
L, B
cistifolia O. Hoffm.
cognata Less.
colorata Drake
Mbatchi et al. (2006)
Maregesi et al. (2007)
Joy et al. (1998)
Johri et al. (1995)
Padal et al. (2010)
Igoli et al. (2005)
Akendengué (1992)
Moshi et al. (2009)
L
India
N/I
N/I
India
Sri Lanka
St
Uganda
Arthritis, conjunctivitis
Inflammation, wounds, liver function, GIT, cough,
asthma, bronchitis
Good luck charm
L
India
Leprosy and scabies
Anitha et al. (2008)
N/I
N/I
WP
R, L
China
India
India
India, Indonesia, Philippines,
Tanzania, W. Africa
Lin (2005)
Alagesaboopathi (2009)
Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005)
Burkill (1985) (S)
L
L
N/I
Uganda
West Indies
India
W. Africa
Brazil
South Africa
South Africa
Ghana
South Africa
Mali
Burkina Faso
Comoros
South Africa
Asthma
Worm and skin disease
Breast tumor
Febrifuge, vermifuge, malaria, incontinence, pile,
cough, pneumonia, asthma, bronchitis, tuberculosis,
snake-bite.
Tonsilitis
Measles
Cure eruptive boils, leprosy
Nasopharyngeal illness
Immune enhancing
Malaria
Tonic, boils
Febrifuge/malaria
fevers, coughs, diarrhoea, boils, and as a general tonic
Wound healing
Skin diseases, malaria, liver disorders, stomach ache
Diarhea
Abdominal pain, colic, rheumatism, dysentery,
diabetes, ulcerative colitis
Stomach illness
Tonic and to treat boils
Infectious disease,
Anthelmintic, cough, pneumonia, stomachache
Fevers, anaemia, stomachic, cough, tonsillitis,
stomatitis, worms, jaundice, pneumonia, sores, heartfailure, epilepsy, schistosomiasis, impotence, female
sterility, scabies, gonorrhoea, poison-antidote
Boils, gonorrhoea, scabies, antidote, emetic,
antifebrile, cough, tonsillitis, gastritis, bilharzia,
sterility, frigidity,
Stomachache, constipation, venereal disease, vertigo,
postpartum pain, general weakness
L
L
R
B
L
L
L
WP
L, R
L
R
L
R
L, R
Nigeria
South Africa
Guinea
Kenya
Tanzania, D.R Congo, W.
Africa
L, R, B
Tanzania
L, R
Mozambique
Jain and Puri (1984) ; Padal et al.
(2010); Allabi et al. (2011)
Gupta et al. (2003a)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Ssegawa and Kasenene (2007)
Hamill et al. (2003)
Brussell (2004)
Mini et al. (2010)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Petri et al. (2008)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Kelmanson et al. (2000)
Addae-Kyereme et al. (2001)
Rabe et al. (2002)
Diallo et al. (2002)
Nadembega et al. (2011)
Kaou et al. (2008)
Elgorashi et al. (2003)
Allabi et al. (2011)
Kelmanson et al. (2000)
Magassouba et al. (2007)
Gakuya et al. (2012)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
Bruschi et al. (2011)
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115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
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N.J. Toyang, R. Verpoorte / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Table 3 (continued )
Vernonia species
Part used
Country or region
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
condensata Baker
L
L
Mozambique
Brazil
Cough, pneumonia
Stomach ache, digestive problems, muscular pain,
hepatic problems
Bandeira et al. (2001)
Albuquerque et al. (2007)
L
Brazil, Nigeria
Protection against snake bite
L
L
L
L
L, B, R
Brazil
Brazil
Brazil
Nigeria
W. Africa
N/I
L
L
N/I
N/I
L
R, L
Cameroon
Cameroon
D R Congo
West Africa—Angola
Rwanda
Rwanda
China
N/I
China
Diarrhea
Intestinal disorder and cholagogue
Headache
Laxative
Galactogue, aphrodisiac, stomachache, laxative,
whooping-cough, convulsive-cough, bronchitis,
asthma, wounds, sores, jaundice, poison-antidote,
diuretic, gonococcal orchitis, diarrhoea, constipation,
worms, ophthalmias, abscess.
Wound, galactogogue, jaundice,
Stomach ache/cramps
Antivenom
Pain, galactogogue, abscess, asthma
Bacteria
Gonorhoea
Hepatitis, gastrointestinal diseases, toxicosis, eye
disease.
Rheumatic arthritis, lumbocrural pain, fracture and
malaria
Fungus
Stomachache
Dermatitis
Stimulant
Alterative, tonic
Menstruation, tonic, ague
Malaria
Inflammation
Hepatitis
Chest-pain
External injury/infection, wounds
Diabetes (mellitus), GIT disease
Piscicide
Dysmenorrhoea
Migraine, psoric
Malaria
diabetes
Burns, fresh wound, gonorrhoea, diuretic, amoebic
dysentery
Snake antidote
Schistomiasis
pain, toothache, sores, incipient hernia, purgative,
dysentery, poison, urethral discharge, vomiting,
malaria, jaundice, snake-bite, aphrodisiac,
spermatogenesis,
Prostatitis and prostate cancer
Male infertility
Epilepsy, menoxenia, aphrodasiac
parasites infection, malaria, bacteria
Gastritis, urinary infections, male sterility
Syphillis, gonorrhea, male/female infertility (female
inflammatory disease, orchitis, epididymytis)
dysmenorrhoea
Prescribed in low doses, poison
Mental disease, emetic, cough, diarrhoea, relief
strangulated hernia.
Diarrhoea
malaria
Cough
Colic, sore throat, cough & headache
Hepatitis
Pereira et al. (1994), Houghton
and Osibogun (1993)
Begossi et al. (1993)
Grandi et al. (1988)
Rizzo et al. (1985)
Ajibesin et al. (2008)
Burkill (1985) (S)
conferta Benth.
cruda Klatt Bull.
cumingiana Benth.
deppeana Less.
N/I
N/I
N/I
extensa DC
N/I
fasciculata Michx.
N/I
L, F
fastigiata Oliv. & Hiern
L
ferruginea Less.
N/I
fontinalis S. Moore
N/I
galamensis Less.
L
L
L
gerberiformis Oliv. & Hiern N/I
glaberrima Welw ex O.
R
L
Hoffm.
L
glabra (Steetz) Oliv. & Hiern N/I
L, R
grantii oliv
guineensis Benth.
herbacea Rusby
hildebrandtii Vatke.
hirsuta (DC.) Sch. Bip.
hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex
Hochst.
hymenolepis A. Rich.
jugalis Oliv. & Hiern
karaguensis Oliv. & Hiern
kenteocephala Bak.
kotschyana Sch.Bip. ex
Walp
S. America
El Salvador
Gautemala and Mexico
Thailand
USA
USA
South Africa
Bolivia
Rwanda
Tanzania
Ethiopia
Tanzania
Angola
South Africa
W. Africa
Togo
Swaziland
W. Africa
L
L, R
L, R
Kenya
Malawi
Congo, W. Africa
R
R
R
R
R
R
Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon
L/R
L, R
Brazil
Tanzania
N/I
WP
R
N/I
N/I
Tanzania
S. Africa
S. Africa
Swaziland
Rwanda
N/I
L
L, R
West Africa- Angola
Uganda
Tanzania
L, R
L
L
Africa
Madagascar
Nigeria
N/I
Mali
Hypertension, neonatal respiration problems
Fever/malaria
Promote birth, stomach ache and whole plant to cure
epilepsy.
HIV infection
Febrifuge
stomach ache, gonorrhea, gingivitis, arthritis, and
tuberculosis
Ulcers and gastritis
Betti (2004)
Fonge et al. (2012)
Chifundera (1987)
Mengome et al. (2010)
Vermani and Garg 2002 (2002)
Van Puyvelde et al. (1983)
Zheng and Xing (2009)
Lin et al. (1985)
Svetaz et al. (2010)
Gupta et al. (1993)
Folliard (2008)
Ponglux et al. (1992)
Smyth (1903)
Cook (1869)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Malafronte et al. (2009)
Mukazayire et al. (2011)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Teklehaymanot and Giday (2010)
Chhabra et al. (1989)
Bossard (1993)
Van Wyk and Gericke (2000)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Ananil et al. (2000)
Long (2005)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Owour and Kisangau (2006)
Hostettman (1984)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Noumi (2010)
Noumi et al. (2011)
Jiofack et al. (2009)
Jiofack et al. (2010)
Focho et al. (2009b)
Focho et al. (2009a)
Rodrigues (2007)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
Ramathal and Ngassapa (2001)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Hutchings et al. (1996)
Long (2005)
Mukazayire et al. (2011)
Mengome et al. (2010)
Hamill et al. (2003)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
James (2007)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Ibrahim et al. (2009)
Inngjerdingen et al. (2004)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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75
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77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
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118
119
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122
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12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
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49
50
51
52
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Table 3 (continued )
Vernonia species
lasiopus O. Hoffm.
leiocarpa DC
leopoldii
macrocyanus O. Hoffm.
mapirensis Gleason
miombicola Wild Kirkia
mollissima Don ex Hook. &
Arn.
myriantha Hook F.
Part used
Country or region
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
L, R
R
Cameroon
Mali
Focho et al. (2009a,b)
Nergard et al. (2004)
R
R
L, St
L
L
L, B, R
N/I
L, R
L
WP, R
L
L, R
Mali
Mali
Kenya
Rwanda
Uganda
Kenya
Mexico
Kenya
Kenya
Tanzania
Rwanda
Tanzania
N/I
L
L, F
WP
N/I
L
L
El Salvador
Mexico
Saudi Arabia, Yemen
Angola
Bolivia
Rwanda
Argentina
Gastritis and internal ulcers
gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, ameliorate digestion
and wound healing
Gastric ulcer
Wounds
Malaria and Worms
bacteria, virus
Febrile convulsions
Malaria
GIT parasites
Heart burn, crop pests and maggots
Skin diseases
Epilepsy, indigestion, parturition
Hepatitis, wounds and kids constipation
Reproductive health, promote lactation, aphrodisiac,
purgative, epilepsy
Asthma
bacteria
Cough, colic and skin diseases
spasmodic, fish poison
Inflammation
Virus and bacteria
Excessive sweating
Malaria
contraceptive
Mental illness
Malaria
Diarrhoea
Hysteria, epilepsy
ringworm
Vomiting, vermifuge, kidney, antidysentery,
febrifuge, rheumatism, piles, aphrodisiac, yellow
fever, jaundice, constipation, colic, blood purification,
eye problems, menstruation
Diarrhoea
Diuretic, GIT, emetic, fever, worms
Alterative, tonic
Veneral disease
Malaria
Stomach disorders, rheumatism, dysentery, diabetes
and ulcerative colitis
Diarrhoea
Diabetes, abdominal pain, colic, rheumatism,
dysentery
Diabetes, rheumatism & malaise
Malaria
Wounds
Fever
Nose bleeding, vermifuge
Inflammation, fever, colds, bacteria, hepatitis.
Tonic, astringent and strong diaphoretic; fever, piles,
malaria, incontinence, amoebiasis, anthelmintic,
diarrhea, dropsy, cough, stomachache, colic,
conjunctivitis, rheumatism, flatulence, dysuria,
leucoderma, psoriasis and other chronic skin
diseases.
Used in combination with other herbs: Respiratory
tract disorders (including asthma, bronchitis,
pneumonia, cold, cough, mucus, influenza, tonsillitis,
sore throat), Sex stimulant, impotency,
spermatorrhea, premature ejaculation, aphrodisiac,
Oral infections/lesions (mouth, tooth, tongue)
Malaria
purgative
Bacteria and viruses
Liver problems
Rheumatism, bronchitis, cough
Fever, respiratory disease
Cough, fever, prevent miscarriage
Cancer, dermatitis
Febrifuge
Stomachic, gonorrhoea
Febrifuge
Indigestion, vomiting
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Mabogo (1990)
Long (2005)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
de Wet et al. (2010)
Stafford et al. (2008)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Burkill (1985) (S)
L, R
R
N/I
natalensis Sch.Bip. ex Walp. WP
R
neocorymbosa Hilliard
R, L
nestor S.Moore
Lt
nigritiana Oliv. & Hiern
R, F
noveboracensis (L.) Willd
nudicaulis Less.
oligocephala Edgew
oocephala Baker
pachyclada Baker
patens HBK.
patula Mart. Ex DC
S. Africa
S. Africa
Swaziland
S. Africa
S. Africa
S. Africa
Nigeria
W. Africa
R
R
N/I
N/I
L
L
Ivory Coast
Senegal
USA
Madagascar
S. Africa
S. Africa
NI
L
S. Africa
S. Africa
N/I
N/I
N/I
St,L
L
WP
L, R, Fl
Swaziland
Nigeria
Madagascar
Panama
Costa Rica
Tawain
Bangladesh
N/I
Bangladesh
pectoralis Bak.
AP
perrottetii Sch.Bip ex Walp. L
pogosperma Klatt
L
L
polyanthes Less.
L, R
polytricholepis Baker
N/I
poskeana Vatke & Hildeb.
WP
potamophila Baker
L
prolytricholepsis Bak.
AP
pumila kotschy & Peyr.
R
rhodolepsis Bak.
AP
roxburghii Less. (L. Saurai). S
saligna DC
N/I
Madagascar
W. Africa
Rwanda
Rwanda
Brazil
Madagascar
Tanzania
D. R Congo
Madagascar
E. & W. Africa
Madagascar
India
China
Maiga et al. (2005)
Diallo et al. (2002)
Kareru et al. (2008)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Ssegawa and Kasenene (2007)
Muregi et al. (2007a, 2007b)
Heinrich (1996) (S)
Gakuya et al. (2012)
Njoroge and Bussmann (2007)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Mukazayire et al. (2010)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
Gupta et al. (1993)
Meckes et al. (1995)
Al-Musayeib et al. (2012)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Morales-Escobar et al. (2007)
Cos et al. (2002)
Goleniowski et al. (2006)
Diehl et al. (2004)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Smyth (1903)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Thring and Weitz (2006)
De Wet et al. (2008)
Deutschlander et al. (2009)
Long (2005)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Williams et al. (2005)
Gupta et al. (1996)
Gupta et al. (1993)
Chiu and Chang (1987)
Saha and Paul (2012)
Mollik et al. (2010)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Mukazayire et al. (2011)
Braga et al. (2007)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Babady-Bila et al. (2003)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Chandra et al. (1985)
Huang et al. (2003)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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100
101
102
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106
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112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
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53
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57
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59
60
61
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63
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N.J. Toyang, R. Verpoorte / Journal of Ethnopharmacology ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]
Table 3 (continued )
Vernonia species
Part used
Country or region
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
senegalensis Less.
L
L
L, R, B
Brazil
Trinidad
Tanzania
Serratuloides Kunth
smithiana Less.
N/I
WP, R
Mexico
Congo
spiciforma Klatt
staehelinoides Mart. Ex
Baker
stellullifera (Benth.) C.
Jeffrey
stenocephala Oliv.
stipulacea Klatt
AP
L
Madagascar
S. Africa
Respiratory tract infection, tuberculosis, uterus
prolapse
skin disorders, including chronic wounds and ulcers
Aphrodasiac, witchcraft
Boils, gonorrhoea, scabies, antidote, emetic,
antifebrile, cough, tonsillitis, gastritis, bilharzia,
sterility, frigidity,
Toothache
Rheumatic pains, heart troubles, venereal discharge,
stomach complaints, arbotifacient
Febrifuge
Malaria
WP
Cameroon
Stops miscarriage, dysentery
Jiofack et al. (2010)
L
R
R
R
R
WP, Fl
Uganda
S. Africa
S. Africa
Tanzania
Uganda
India
Pre-hepatic jaundice
Diarrhoea, fever, flu, contraceptive.
HIV virus
Galactogogue
Sleeping sickness
Ulcers, wounds, acaricide
N/I
S. Africa
Bacteria
Ssegawa and kasenene (2007)
Bessong et al. (2005)
Bessong et al. (2006)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Freiburghaus et al. (1996)
Garg and Siddique (1992), Johri
and Singh (1997)
Mungarulire (1990)
tigna Klatt
L
N/I
N/I
Gabon
S. Africa
Swaziland
trichoclada Gleason
trichodesma Bak.
tweedieana Baker
undulata Oliv. & Hiern
usambarensis O. Hoffm.
venosa S.Moore
zeylanica Less
N/I
L
L
L
R
N/I
St
Bolivia
Madagascar
Brazil
Gabon
Tanzania
Sudan
Sri Lanka
Fever, fish poison
Abortificient
Menstrual irregularities, abortifacient, worms,
arthritis and aphrodisiac
Inflammation
Malaria
Immune enhancing
Enema, piles
Excessive menses
Bacteria
inflammation
scorpioides Pers.
subuligera O. Hoffm.
teres
thomsoniana Oliv. & Hiern
ex Oliv.
Buskuhl et al. (2010)
Wong (1976)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
Heinrich (1996) (S)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Pillay et al. (2007)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Mabogo (1990)
Long (2005)
Morales-Escobar et al. (2007)
Rasoanaivo et al. (1992)
Petri et al. (2008)
Burkill (1985) (S)
Hedberg et al. (1982)
Al Magboul et al. (1988)
Ratnasooriya et al. (2007)
B-Bark; L-Leaf; R-Root; S-Seed; St-Stem; WP-Whole plant; S: Secondary reference source.
with inhibition of growth by 31 mg/disc in a disc diffusion assay
(Chimponda and Mukanganyama, 2010). Further research is
required to confirm the folk use of the plant to treat other
diseases and conditions including HIV/AIDS, wounds and
snake bite.
3.1.2. Vernonia aemulans Vatke
Vernonia aemulans is used in Rwanda against some bacterial
infections especially gonorrhea (Van Puyvelde et al., 1983;
Vlietinck et al., 1995; Vermani and Garg, 2002). Laboratory
studies showed weak antimicrobial and antiviral activities
(Vlietinck et al., 1995). In three of the reports found, the species
was erroneously referred to as Vernonia aemulans whereas the
correct name is Vernonia aemulans according to the IPNI database.
3.1.3. Vernonia albicans DC
Vernonia albicans is used to treat earache problems in India
(Rai and Lalramnghinglova, 2011). This species is not widespread
in distribution possibly explaining its limited use.
3.1.4. Vernonia ambigua Kotschy & Peyr
Information on the use of this species is from Cameroon,
Nigeria and Tanzania where it is used to treat reproductive
problems including urinary tract infections (Focho et al., 2009a),
cough and colds (Burkill, 1985) as well as malaria (Builders et al.,
2011). The claimed antplasmodial activity of Vernonia ambigua
has been confirmed in vitro and in vivo (Builders et al., 2011).
Phytochemical analyses have also revealed the presence of major
classes of compounds in the plant including alkaloids, flavonoids
and terpenes (Kunle and Egharevba, 2009; Builders et al., 2011).
The plant was safe at 5000 mg/kg in an acute toxicity study
(Builders et al., 2011).
3.1.5. Vernonia ampandrandavensis Humbert
Vernonia ampandrandavensis is used in Madagascar to treat
malaria (Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.6. Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Vernonia amygdalina is the most studied member of the Vernonia
genus. This species is associated with the treatment and control of
over twenty diseases and conditions in folk medicine (Tables 3–5).
The species has found use in human folk medicine as well as in
ethnoveterinary medicine and zoopharmacognosy. The major medicinal benefits of this species have been highlighted in reviews by
Yeap et al. (2010) and Ijeh and Ejike (2011). Considering the diseases
and conditions that are routinely treated with Vernonia amygdalina,
one may see that there is some agreement on the use of leaves
against gastrointestinal tract (GIT) conditions such as diarrhoea,
constipation, stomachache, intestinal worms and bacterial infections.
The plant is also used for the treatment of urinary tract infections,
diabetes and malaria.
In ethnoveterinary medicine, the plant is mostly used against
parasitic infections especially those of the GIT tract (Alawa et al.,
2003; Nalule et al., 2011). Vernonia amygdalina is also only one of
two species reported to have have zoopharmacognostic importance. An interesting observation for the use of the species against
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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81
82
83
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87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
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21
22
23
24
25
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27
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30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
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49
50
51
52
53
54
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Table 4
Ethnoveterinary uses of Vernonia species.
Species
Part used
Country
Use in ethnomedicine
Reference
adoensis Sch. Bip. Ex Walp
amygdalina Del.
L
L
L
L,R
L
L
L, R
L
N/I
Kenya
Nigeria
Ethiopia
Uganda
Kenya
Cameroon
Uganda
Eathipia
Pakistan
Burkill (1985) (S)
Alawa et al. (2003)
Yineger et al. (2007)
Tabuti et al. (2003)
Githiori et al. (2006)
Toyang et al. (2007)
Nalule et al. (2011)
Regassa (2000)
Muhammad et al. (2005)
N/I
S
Pakistan
India
Sores
Worms
Diarrhea, scabies and hepatitis
Cough, diarrhoea and measles
Nematocide
Worms
Worms
Ticks
Prevention of indigestion and halitosis in camel, digestive
disorders, Cold/rhinitis, Pneumonia, systemic disorders
Worms
Nematocide
R
L
N/I
R
L, R
L
St
R
L
Rajasthan
Nigeria
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Uganda
Ethiopia
South Africa
South Africa
Trinidad
Food poison, fever, dysentery
Diarrhea, fleas
Trypanosomiasis
Worms, promote calf growth
Worms
hepatitis
Heartwater in goats,
Used to treat calves, worms in donkeys and domestic animals
Bathe dogs with leaves so that they are more alert, mange, wounds
anthelmintica Willd.
cinerea (L.) Less
conferta Benth.
filigera Oliv. & Hiern
guineensis Benth.
grantii Oliv
hymenolepis A. Rich.
mespilifolia Less
neocorymbosa Hilliard
scorpioides (Lam.) Pers
Hussain et al. (2008)
Githiori et al. (2006),
Hördegen et al. (2003)
Galav et al. (2010)
Chah et al. (2009)
Teklehaymanot (2009)
Toyang et al. (2012a)
Nalule et al. (2011)
Yineger et al. (2007)
Dold and Cocks (2001)
McGaw and Eloff (2008)
Lans et al. (2001)
Table 5
Zoopharmacognostic uses of Vernonia species.
amygdalina Del.
Pith
Tanzania
GIT parasite load reduction in chimpanzees
Huffman and Seifu (1989), Huffman et al. (1993)
Cistifolia O. Hoffm.
Fr. Pith
Central Africa
GIT parasites and other stomach problems
Cousins and Huffman (2002)
B-Bark; L-Leaf; -Root; S-Seed; St-Stem; WP-Whole plant; Fr-Fruit; S: Secondary reference source.
GIT parasites is in self medication practices by Chimpanzees and
gorillas in the Central African region (Ohigashi et al., 1994;
Koshimizu et al., 1994). To confirm the effect of self medication
practices by chimpanzees, Huffman et al. (1993) observed a wild
female chimpanzee suffering from gastrointestinal upset (flatulence and diarrhea) which self medicated using Vernonia amygdalina. The chimpanzee was followed for approximately 5 h over a
two-day period and laboratory examination of two fecal samples,
one collected approximately 1 h and another 20.5 h after ingestion of the plant’s bitter pith, revealed a notable drop in the
degree of parasitic infection by a Ternidens sp. Vernodalin and
vernonioside BI have been suggested to be responsible for the
antibacterial effect responsible for the zoopharmacognostic effect
of Vernonia amygdalina in chimpanzees following in vitro bioassay
studies (Jisaka et al., 1993; Huffman et al., 1993).
Challand and Willcox (2009) reported the first clinical trial
results using a preparation of Vernonia amygdalina against malaria
where a 32% parasitaemia reduction was achieved with 500 mg/
kg/day 7 days. In a mouse model using Plasmodium berghei, an
82.3% parasite reduction was achieved with 1000 mg/kg/day 4
days (Omoregie et al., 2010). When the plant was compared with
other medicinal plants, Vernonia amygdalina accounted for 9.1% of
the time that medicinal plants were used as an alternative
medicine in central Nigeria (Amira and Okubadejo, 2007). Apart
from its use in medicine, Vernonia amygdalina has other non
medicinal uses including the use to protect metal from corrosion
(Avwiri and Igho, 2003).
On the phytochemistry of the plant, several compounds including
flavonoids and terpenoids have been isolated from the plant. A good
number of the compounds (e.g., vernolide and water soluble peptides
called edotides) isolated from Vernonia amygdalina have shown
cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines (Jisaka et al., 1992; Izevbigie,
2003; Erasto et al., 2006; Opata and Izevbigie, 2006)). Despite the
great activity reported for in vitro activity, no clinical trials have been
carried out to support the efficacy of this species or its isolated
molecules in treating cancers. Fifteen of the compounds isolated from
Vernonia amygdalina, most of which have also been isolated from
other Vernonia species have been shown to be bioactive in various
assays (Table 8). Octahydrovernodalin is the most important bitterprinciple in the plant resulting in the common name of ‘‘bitterleaf’’ for
the plant (Yeap et al., 2010). A freeze dried sample of the extract of
Vernonia amygdalina is one of the few herbal products that have been
formulated into tablets for the control of diabetes mellitus in Nigeria
(Emeje et al., 2011). Another tablet formulation of Vernonia amygdalina is in use to boast the immunity of HIV patients (Momoh et al.,
2012). Biomass root culture extracts of Vernonia amygdalina killed
abnormal cells among primary cells harvested from patients with
acute lymphoblastic leukemia and acute myeloid leukemia
(Khalafalla et al., 2009). Vernonia amygdalina is also used routinely
by HIV patients for malaria, fevers, as a dewormer, and for stomach
pains (Lubinga et al., 2012). This species was the second most used
(21%) concomitant herbal preparation taken by HIV patients on
antiretroviral therapy (ART) surveyed in western Uganda (Lubinga
et al., 2012). Aloe vera was the most used herbal preparation.
On the safety, this plant is used as a vegetable indicative of the
fact that it is generally considered safe for use in medicine.
For example, in a chronic toxicity study, rats were fed with up
to 75% (w/w) powdered Vernonia amygdalina leaves mixed with
grower mash for 65 days and at the end of the study the only
gross change observed was the lightening of the skin of the rats in
the treatment group versus the control group (Ibrahim et al.,
2001). Microscopical examination of major organs showed that
organ morphology was normal in both the treatment and control
groups. Also, no adverse effects were found in studies on the
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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100
101
102
103
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107
108
109
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121
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2
3
4
5
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7
8
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Table 6a
In-vitro studies carried out on the bioactivity of Vernonia species.
Species
Study
Activity/results
Reference
adoensis Sch. Bip. exWalp
Antioxidant
Antiplasmodial
Antimycobacterium
193.2 mmol/g
2.14 mg/ml
31 mg/disc
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Antiplasmodial
antioxidant
Antidiabetic
Antiplasmodial
Cytotoxicity (C-1008 Vero
cells)
Antifungal
Antimutagenic
Anthelmintic
70 mg/ml
NA
NA
MIC ¼ 2.5 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 31.62 mg/ml
200 mg/ml
50 mg/ml
9.83 mg/ml
60.33 mg/ml
Stangeland et al. (2010)
Stangeland et al. (2010)
Chimponda and Mukanganyama
(2010)
Kisangau et al. (2007a)
Al Magboul et al. (1988)
Van Puyvelde et al. (1983)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Builders et al. (2011)
Builders et al. (2011)
Erasto et al. (2009)
Omoregie et al. (2010)
Omoregie et al. (2010)
ambigua Kotschy and Peyr
amygdalina Del.
Antimicrobial
Antimicrobial
Hemolytic activit
Anthelmintic
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
Antiviral
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Hepatoprotective
Antioxidant
Antibacterial
Antiamoebic
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Antibacterial
Antimicrobial
Antiviral
Antibacterial
Cytotoxicity
ERK kinase (cancer)
Cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity
Antibacterial
Antimycoplasma
Antiplasmodial
Antibacterial
Antileishmanial
Antibacterial
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Protein oxidation inhibition
Immunomodulator
Antioxidant activity
Liver protection and
antioxidant
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
Cytotoxicity
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
Liver protection
Uterine contractility
Anthelmintic
Antileishmanial activity
Anti trichomonas
Anthelmintic
Cytotoxicity
P-glycoprotein inhibition
Insecticide
Antibacterial
Anthelmintic
Insecticide
Cytotoxicity
A
200 mg/ml
Nematode eggs 76–957 mg/ml Larvae 196.6–
596.3 mg/ml
MIC: 10–15 mg/ml
Diffusion: A
Human erythrocyte (genotype SS) 2% v/v
Hymenolepis diminuta cestodes 34–11.6 mg/ml
100–300 mg/ml
A
A
0.47–1.25 mg/ml
A
A
A
Disc diffusion
250 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 8.72–13.8 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 10 mg/ml
A
Disc diffusion
A
A (Agar well diffusion)
IC50 ¼ 5.68 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 3 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 1000 mg/ml
1 mg/ml
A
A
LC50 ¼ 17 mg/ml
NI
NA
ED50 ¼13.3–18.5 mg/ml
MIC ¼ 3.13–12.5 mg/ml
IC50 o10 mg/ml
A
IC50 o50 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 43.31 mg/ml
NA
A
A
Erasto et al. (2006)
Obaseiki-Ebor et al. (1993)
Ademola and Eloff (2011)
IC50 ¼ 2.3 mg/ml
A
IC50 ¼ 1.0 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 1.0 mg/ml
A (aqueous)
A
100 mg/ml
411.6 mg/ml
100 mg/ml (Aq)
A
Haemonchus larvae 125 mg/ml ¼ 57% inhibition
Taxol resistant prostate cancer cells 100 mg/ml
(73% DNA synthesis inhibition)
20 mg/ml
A (4% extract)
Disc diffusion
2 mg/ml
NI
(3.3–86 mg/ml)
Ayoola et al. (2008)
Iwalewa et al. (2005)
Salawu et al. (2011a)
Salawu et al. (2011a)
Achel et al. (2012)
Babalola et al. (2001)
Attah et al. (2012)
Alawa et al. (2003)
Alawa et al. (2012)
Hakizamungu et al. (1992)
Nweze et al. (2012)
Cameron et al. (2012)
Ogundare et al. (2006)
Oboh and Masodje (2009)
Oboh (2006)
Mølgaard et al. (2001)
Anyasor et al. (2010)
Owolabi et al. (2008)
Vlietinck et al., 1995
Adetutu et al. (2011)
Okigbo and Mmeka (2008)
Adesanoye et al. (2012)
Erasto et al. (2007)
Taiwo et al. (1999)
Otshudi et al. (2000)
Zofou et al. (2011)
Madureira et al. (2002)
Cos et al. (2002)
Yongabi et al. (2009)
Cos et al. (2002)
Hamill et al. (2003)
Izevbigie (2003)
Izevbigie et al. (2004)
Gresham et al. (2008)
Yedjou et al. (2008)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Muraina et al. (2010)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Cheruiyot et al. (2009)
Tadesse et al. (1993)
Akinpelu (1999)
Tona et al. (2004)
Adiukwu et al. (2011)
Masaba (2000)
Njayou et al. (2008)
Koko et al. (2008)
Nwanjo (2005)
Iwalokun et al. (2006)
Oga et al. (2012)
Adeniyi et al. (2010)
Salawu et al. (2011b)
Innocent and Deogracious (2006)
Higashi et al. (1991)
Farombi and Owoeye (2011)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
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Table 6a (continued )
Species
anthelmintica Willd.
auriculifera Hiern
blumeoides
brachycalyx O.Hoffm.
brasiliana Druce
brazzavillensis Aubrév. Ex
Compe re
cinarescens
cinerea (L.) Less
colorata Drake
condensata Baker
conferta
cruda Klatt Bull.
cumingiana Benth.
fastigiata Oliv. & Hiern
glaberrima Welw ex O.
Hoffm.
glabra (Steetz) Oliv. & Hiern
guineensis Benth.
Study
Activity/results
Reference
Antioxidant
Antidiabetic and lipid
lowering
Melanogenesis inhibition
Anthelmintic
cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity
Tyrosine kinase attenuation
Antiplasmodial
Antibacterial
Antitrypanosomal
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Antiplasmodial and
Antileishmania
Brine shrimp toxicity
Mutagenicity
insecticide
Antitrypanosomal
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
50 mg/ml
A
Fasakin et al. (2011)
Fatima et al. (2010)
100 mg/ml
5 mg/ul
NI
NI
20 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 37.7 mg/ml
A
r19 mg/ml
MIC ¼ 2.5 mg/ml
r60 mg/g (antioxidant capacity)
A
Ma et al. (2008)
Hördegen et al. (2006)
Lambertini et al. (2004)
Zhao et al. (2012)
Zhou et al. (2012)
Muregi et al. (2003)
Hamill et al. (2003)
Freiburghaus et al. (1996)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Aliyu et al. (2011b)
Oketch-Rabah et al. (1997)
LD50 ¼0.29–2.6 mg/ml
NA
A
NA
IC50 ¼ 40 ng/ml
IC50 ¼ 22 mg/ml
Oryema et al. (2011)
Rojas de Arias et al. (1995)
Rojas de Arias et al. (1995)
Rojas de Arias et al. (1995)
Carvalho et al. (1991)
Mbatchi et al. (2006)
Maregesi et al. (2010)
Iwalewa et al. (2003)
Rajamurugan et al. (2011)
Iwalewa et al. (2003)
Iwalewa et al. (2003)
Latha et al. (1998)
Gupta et al. (2003a)
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan
(2009)
Cytotoxic activity
Antimicrobial
IC50 ¼ 62.5 mg/mL
A
46–558 mg/ml
A
A
A
50 mg/ml
Fenton reaction: IC50 ¼130 mg/ml; Superoxide
reaction: IC50 ¼190 mg/ml; Lipid peroxidation:
IC50 ¼ 130.5 mg/ml; Nitric Oxide
inhibition:IC50 ¼210 mg/ml
A
MIC: 1.56–50 mg/ml
Antifungal
Antibacterial
Smoking cessation
Antileishmanial
A
A
A
IC50 ¼ 143–443 mg/ml
Zhu et al. (2008)
Yoga Latha et al. (2009, 2010b,
2011)
Mini et al., 2010
Mini et al. (2010)
Leelarungrayub et al. (2010)
Camacho et al. (2003)
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Antioxidant (DPPH inhibition)
Antiinflammatory and
antioxidant
Insecticidal
Antibacterial
Antiplasmodial
Antidiabetic
Genotoxicity
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Toxoplasma/antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
MIC ¼ 0.31 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 0.4 mg/ml
EC50–50 mg/ml
A: IC50 ¼130.5 mg/ml; 210 mg/ml
Rizvi et al. (2011)
Rizvi et al. (2011)
Leelaprakash et al. (2011)
Pratheeshkumar et al. (2009)
LC50 ¼ 1.63 mg/ml
1 mg/ml (disc diffusion)
IC50 ¼ 14 mg/ml
A
NA
4100 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 2.35–12.5 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 17 mg/ml/2.35 mg/ml
IC50 o5 mg/ml
A
Arivoli et al. (2011)
Kelmanson et al. (2000)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Sy et al. (2005)
Elgorashi et al. (2003)
Addae-Kyereme et al. (2001)
Benoit et al. (1996)
Benoit-Vical et al. (2000)
Kaou et al. (2008)
Kraft et al. (2003)
45000 mg/ml
A
Monteiro et al. (2001)
Da Silva et al. (2011)
1 mg/ml (herb mixture)
LC50 ¼ 3.78 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 28.33 mg/ml
Franc- a et al. (2010)
Mengome et al. (2010)
Mengome et al. (2010)
NI
A
NA
10 mg/ml
NI
NI
A
A
IC50 ¼ 3–5 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 67.3 mg/ml
LC50 ¼ 2 mg/ml
Van Puyvelde et al. (1983)
Liu et al. (2009)
Liu et al. (2010)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Ananil et al. (2000)
Ananil et al. (2000)
Ananil et al. (2000)
Achola et al. (1996)
Tchinda et al. (2002)
Toyang et al. (2012a)
Toyang et al. (2012b)
Antiplasmodial
Analgesic
Antioxidant
Antipyretic
Antiinflammatory
Adjuvant-induced arthritis
Antibacterial
Free radical protection
Mutagenicity
Antincociceptive and
Antiinflammatory
immunostimulatory
Loa-loa (filarial worm)
Eukaryotic cells growth
inhibition
Antimicrobial
Antiinflammatory
Antiinflammatory
antiplasmodial
Cytotoxicity
Antiviral
Antibacterial
Antihypertensive
antitrypanosidal
Cytotoxicity
Anthelmintic (Adult Trichuris
muris worms)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
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Table 6a (continued )
Species
hirsuta (DC.) Sch. Bip.
hymenolepis
incana Less
karaguensis Oliv. & Hiern
kotschyana Sch.Bip. ex Walp
lasiopus O. Hoffm.
leopoldii Vatke
miombicola Wild Kirkia
myriantha Hook F.
natalensis Sch.Bip. ex Walp
oligocephala Edgew
oocephala
pogosperma Klatt
polyanthes Less.
scorpioides Pers.
staehelinoides Mart. ex Baker
subuligera
thomsooniana Oliv. & Hiern
ex Oliv.
tweediana Baker
venosa S.Moore
Study
Activity/results
Reference
Antimicrobial
Antiplasmodial
Loa-loa (filarial worm)
Eukaryotic cells growth
inhibition
Antiacterial
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Immunomodulating
Antibacterial
Antiviral, Antifungal
Antiplasmodial
Antimalarial/cytotoxicity
Cytotoxicity
antiplasmodial
Hepatoprotective
Antiprotozoal
Cytotoxicity
Antimicrobial
Antibacterial
Antiviral
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Antiplasmodial
Antiinflammatory
Antiplasmodial
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Antifungal
Antiviral
Antihypertensive
Antibacterial
Antifungal
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
wound healing
Cytotoxicity/
Antiinflammatory
Antiplasmodial
Antitrypanosomal
Antibacterial
MIC Z 200 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 14 mg/ml
LC50 ¼ 3.78 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 28.33 mg/ml
Toyang et al. (2012b)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Mengome et al. (2010)
Mengome et al. (2010)
A
A
A
A
NA
A
IC50 ¼ 1 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 1.4 mg/ml/
A
IC50 ¼ 1.0 mg/ml
1 mg/ml
8.0–41.9 mg/ml
IC50 o50 mg/ml
MIC o500 mg/ml
NA
NA
IC50 ¼ 28 mg/ml
A
IC50 ¼ 19.5 mg/ml
250 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 3.5 mg/ml
MIC r 2.5 mg/ml
500 mg/ml
500 mg/ml
500 mg/ml
A
A
A
A
MIC 625–2500 mg/ml
A
A
Bardón et al. (2007)
Mungarulire (1990, 1993)
Deeni and Hussain (1994)
Nergard et al. (2004)
Vlietinck et al., 1995
Vlietinck et al., 1995
Muregi et al. (2003)
Irungu et al. (2007)
Koul et al. (2003)
Muregi et al. (2003)
Mukazayire et al. (2010)
Al-Musayeib et al. (2012)
Mothana et al. (2009)
Mothana et al. (2009)
Cos et al. (2002)
Cos et al. (2002)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Kraft et al. (2003)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Fawole et al. (2009)
Clarkson et al. (2004)
Aliyu et al. (2011a)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Boily and Van Puyvelde (1986)
Romanezi da Silveira et al. (2003)
Silva et al. (2012)
Freire et al. (1996)
Freire et al. (1996)
Bardón et al. (2007)
Leite et al. (2002)
Pagno et al. (2006)
A
r19 mg/ml
NI
Pillay et al. (2007)
Freiburghaus et al. (1996)
Mungarulire (1990)
Agar well diffusion
NI
Diaz et al. (2008)
Al Magboul et al. (1988)
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
A¼ Active; NA ¼not active; NI ¼Not indicated.
effect of various formulations of metformin and Vernonia amygdalina extract loaded with PEGylated-mucin on haematological
and liver indices in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Momoh et al.,
2011). However, depending on the type of infection being treated,
very high doses of the preparation might be required and as such
it is recommended that every in vivo study be accompanied by at
least an acute toxicity study.
The routine consumption of this species as a green leafy
vegetable throughout West and Central Africa and for several
medicinal purposes confirms the importance of this species as a
source of nutrition and medicine.
3.1.7. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Synonym Centhraterum
anthelminticum Kuntze
This species is distributed throughout Africa and Asia. The plant is
widely used as an anthelmintic (Githiori et al., 2006; Hussain et al.,
2008) and to control diabetes (Fatima et al., 2010; Ramautarsing,
2008; Rao et al., 2010). Parekh and Chanda (2007, 2008) listed several
uses of this plant in Indian folk medicine (Table 3). The plant is used
in ethnoveterinary medicine to control GIT infections, halitosis,
indigestion and pneumonia (Muhammad et al., 2005). Alcoholic
extracts of the seeds were shown to have potent anthelmintic activity
in vitro and in vivo (Singh et al., 1985 and Iqbal et al., 2006). The seeds
are known to contain epoxy and vernolic acids that are thought to
contribute to the antidiabetic activity of this plant. Given the
confirmation of the antidiabetic properties of this plant in vitro and
in vivo, a clinical trial to determine the efficacy in humans is
recommended.
3.1.8. Vernonia appendiculata Less
Vernonia appendiculata is used in Madagascan folk medicine as
a febrifuge (Rasoanaivo et al., 1992). Bayer Consumer Care of
Germany has filed a utility patent claiming the use of this species
to improve the status of the skin (Segond et al., 2008). This patent
reveals that Vernonia appendiculata does have useful dermatological properties.
3.1.9. Vernonia arborea Buch.- Ham.
This is one of the lesser known species of Vernonia with only one
report on the folk uses of the leaves (Manjunatha et al., 2005). The
plant extract showed wound healing properties in vivo and demonstrated oral toxicity with LD50 value of 300 mg/kg (Manjunatha
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Table 6b
In-vivo studies carried out on the bioactivity of Vernonia species.
Species
Study
Activity/results (ED50/LD50)
Reference
ambigua Kotschy and
Peyr
amygdalina Del.
Antimalarial
Mice: 600 mg/kg; oral (Plasmodium berghei)
Builders et al. (2011)
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Rat: 400 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 160 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 500 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 400 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 500 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 250 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 100 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 800 mg/kg; Oral
Rat: 100 mg/kg combined with Azadirachta;
Oral
Rat: 400 mg/kg; Oral
Rabbit: A; 80 mg/kg; LD50 1122 mg/kg IP
Rat 200 mg/kg Oral
Rat: 250 mg/kg
Rabbit: A
50 g/human
Rat: 100 mg/kg (oral)
Rat: 300 mg/kg
15% extract: Chicken
Rat: 1265.22 mg/kg
Rat 200 mg/kg
Rat: 800 mg/kg
Rat: 10 kg/ml
Ong et al. (2011)
Akah et al. (2009)
Osinubi (2006)
Akinola et al. (2010)
Akinola et al. (2011)
Taiwo et al. (2008)
Adikwu et al. (2010)
Momoh et al. (2011)
Atangwho et al. (2009) and Atangwho
et al. (2012)
Atangwho et al. (2010)
Akah and Okafor (1992)
Fasola et al. (2010)
Oyeyemi et al. (2008)
Owolabi et al. (2011)
Okolie et al. (2008)
Adaramoye et al. (2008a)
Spencer et al. (2011)
Owen et al. (2011)
Nwanjo (2005)
Nwanjo (2005)
Adaramoye et al. (2008b)
Owu et al. (2008)
Dogs: 500 mg/dog
Mice: 50 mg/kg
Rat:400 mg/kg
Adedapo et al. (2007)
Alawa et al. (2012)
Georgewill and Georgewill (2009a,
2009b)
Oyagbemi and Adejinmi (2012)
Adesanoye and Farombi (2010)
Koffuor et al. (2011)
Taiwo et al. (2010)
Challand and Willcox (2009)
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Antidiabetic
Spermiogram effect
Antioxidant
Hypoglycemic (Antidiabetic)
Lipid-lowering
Hepatoprotection/hypolipidemic
Lipid lowering
Acute toxicity
Antioxidant (oxidative stress)
Antioxidant
Gastric acid secretion
stimulation
Anthelmintic
Antileishmanial
Antiinflammatory(arthritis)
Coccidiosis (Eimeria sp.)
Hypertoprotection
Antihypertensive
Antihypertensive
Antimalarial
Antimalarial (Plasmodium
berghei)
Atopic dermatitis
Antimalarial
Liver protection
Testicular health
Antimalarial
Hepatoprotection
Antimalarial
anthelmintica Willd.
arborea Buch. Ham.
brasiliana (L.) Druce.
cinerea (L.) Less
Chicken: 10% feed
Rat: 500 mg/kg
Mice: 55 mg/kg
Rat: 50 mg/kg
Human clinical trial: 500 mg/kg/day 7 days.
32% complete parasite clearance
1000 mg/kg/day 4 days: 82.3% clearance
Immunomodulation (CD4)
Antimalarial
Antipyretic
Anti-lipidaemic
Antipyretic
Antimalarial
14-day toxicity
Radiation protection
Tissue damage protection
Anthelmintic
Antiinflammatory/arthritic
Acute toxicity
Anthelminitc
Anthelmintic
Antidiabetic
Wound healing
Wound healing
Acute toxicity
antimalarial
antimalarial
Antipyretic
Free radical protection
Antitumor
Mice: 7 mg/ml
Mice: 600 mg/kg
Rat: 15% W/W
Rat: 100 mg/kg combine with Ocimum
Mice; 125 mg/kg
Mice: 50 mg/kg
Mice: Leaf ED50 125 mg/kg 4 days (67%
clearance; RT ED50 ¼ 250 mg/kg 4 days
(53.5% clearance)
Rat: 200 mg/kg
Mice: 250 mg/kg
Rat: 800 mg/kg
Rat: 30% feed
Mice: 200 mg/kg
Mice: 200 mg/kg
Mice 42000 mg/kg
Rat: 500 mg/kg
Rat: 60 mg/kg
Sheep: 3000 mg/kg
Mice/rat: 500 mg/kg
Mice: 45000 mg/kg
NI
Lamb: 40.3 mg/kg
Rat: 100 mg/kg
Rat: 30 mg/kg
Rat: 30 mg/kg
Rat: 300 mg/kg
Mice: 1 g/kg (oral) Plasmodium berghei
Mice: 1000 mg/kg (oral) Plasmodium berghei
Rat: 500 mg/kg (oral)
Mice: 500 mg/dose 5 days
Mice: 500 mg/kg
Immunomodulation
Gamma irradiation protection
Cell mediated immune response
Acute toxicity
Mice:
Mice:
Mice:
Mice:
20 mg/kg
20 mg/kg
20 mg/kg
LD50 42000 mg/kg
Omoregie et al. (2010)
Ngatu et al. (2012)
Melariri et al. (2011)
Arhoghro et al. (2009)
Asuquo et al. (2010)
Iwalokun (2008)
Iwalokun et al. 2006
Abosi and Raseroka (2003)
Momoh et al. (2010)
Adiukwu et al. (2011)
Adiukwu et al. (2011)
Ugwu et al. (2011)
Njan et al. (2008)
Njan et al. (2008)
Njan et al. (2008)
Owoeye et al. (2010, 2011)
Josiah et al. (2012)
Iqbal et al. (2006)
Otari et al. (2010)
Otari et al. (2010)
Chopra et al. (1934)
Hördegen et al. (2003)
Fatima et al. (2010)
Pradhan et al. (2009)
Manjunatha et al. (2005)
Pradhan et al. (2009)
Carvalho et al. (1991)
Ameida Alves et al. (1997)
Gupta et al. (2003b)
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan (2010a)
Sangeetha and Venkatarathinakumar
(2011)
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan (2011a)
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan (2010b)
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan (2012a)
Yoga Latha et al. (2010a)
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Table 6b (continued )
Species
cognata Less.
colorata (Willd.) Drake
condensata Baker
galamensis
guineensis Benth.
kotschyana Sch.Bip. ex
Walp
lasiopus O. Hoffm.
noveboracensis (L.) Willd
polyanthes
scorpioides
tenoreana Oliv.
zeylanica (L.) Less
Study
Activity/results (ED50/LD50)
Reference
Antiinflammatory
Analgesic, antipyretic,
antiinflammatory
hepatoprotective
Antiinflammatory (neuropathic
pain)
Nephrotoxicity protection
Antiarthritic activity
Acute toxicity
Antioxidant
Antidiabetic
Antiinflammatory
Analgesic/ulcer
Antivenom
Rat: 250 mg/kg
Rat: 100–400 mg/kg
Mazumder et al. (2003)
Iwalewa et al. (2003)
Rat: 250 mg/kg
Rat: 200 mg/kg
Leelaprakash et al. (2011)
Thiagarajan et al. (2012)
Rat: 500 mg/kg
Rat: 100 mg/kg
Rat: 42000 mg/kg
Rat: 2 g/kg
Rat: 300 mg/kg
Rat: 84.2 mg/kg
Mice: 241 mg/kg/200 mg/kg
100 mg/kg 60% survival in 48 h compared to
0% for control
Mice: 3400 mg/kg
None
Rat: 100 mg/kg
Mice: 2.7 mg/kg
Mice: 1000 mg/kg
Rat: 700 mg/kg (Tablet formulation study)
Rat: 200 mg/kg
Rat: 200 mg/kg
Rat:200 mg/kg
Rat; oral: 4 5000 mg/kg
Mice: LD50 44000 mg/kg
Rat: 1000 mg/kg
Mice: 100 mg/kg
Mice: 50 mg/kg
Rat
Rat
Rat
Mice (500 mg/kg)
Human
Mice: 50 mg/kg
Mice: 400 mg/kg
Sreedevi et al. (2011)
Latha et al. (1998)
Rajamurugan et al. (2011)
Mota et al. (2011)
Sy et al. (2004)
Cioffi et al. (2004)
Frutuoso et al. (1994).
Pereira et al. (1994)
Rat: 1 mg/kg (oral)
NA (100 mg gel)
NA (harmful in fresh excission wounds)
Mice: 1 mg/ear
Rat: Weak
Rat: 1500 mg/kg
LD50 ¼ 1429.6 mg/ml
Romanezi da Silveira et al., 2003
Leite et al. (2002)
Dalazen et al. (2005)
Rauh et al. (2011)
Taiwo et al. (2008)
Ratnasooriya et al. (2007)
Ratnasooriya et al. (2007)
Acute toxicity
Embryotoxicity
Antiinflammatory
Antinociceptive
Acute toxicity
Antidiabetic
Sedative
Analgesic
Antiulcer
Acute toxicity
Acute toxicity
Ulcer
Ulcer
Antiinflammatory
Sedative
Analgesic
Antiulcer
Antimalarial
Contact dermatitis
Antiulcer
Antinociceptive/
antiinflammatory
Blood pressure
Wound healing
Wound healing
Inflammation (ear oedema)
Antidiabetic
Analgesic
Brine shrimp toxicity
Monteiro et al. (2001)
Monteiro et al. (2001)
Da Silva et al. (2011)
Risso et al. (2010)
Risso et al. (2010)
Autamashih et al. (2011)
Johri et al. (1995)
Johri et al. (1995)
Johri et al. (1995)
Autamashih et al. (2011)
Toyang et al. (2012b)
Germano et al. (1996)
Austarheim et al. (2012)
Ibrahim et al. (2009)
Johri et al., 1995
Johri et al., 1995
Johri et al., 1995
Muregi et al. (2007a, 2007b)
Fortina et al. (2002)
Barbastefano et al. (2007)
Temponi et al. (2012)
A¼ Active; NA ¼not active; NI ¼Not indicated.
et al., 2005). Kumari et al. (2003) isolated Zaluzanin with antifungal
properties from the plant. More bioactivity studies are needed to
ascertain the claimed medicinal properties of the species.
3.1.10. Vernonia aristifera S.F. Blake
Vernonia aristifera S.F. Blake is indicated to be a synonym of
Critoniopsis foliosa (Benth.) H.Rob. in theplantlist.org. Vernonia aristefera is also synonym to Vernonia steetzii Sch.Bip. The only folkloric
use reported for this species is in Mexico where the roots are used to
control dysentery and hypermenorrhage (Heinrich, 1996).
3.1.11. Vernonia auriculifera Hiern
The leaves are used in Cameroon to treat cataract and in
Ethiopia to treat toothache (Focho et al., 2009b; Giday et al.,
2009). The plant also has application in reproductive health
(Namukobe et al., 2011). Vernonia auriculifera was ranked as the
second most used medicinal plant amongst the Meinits in
Ethiopia (Giday et al., 2009). Reference is made to the use of a
leaf decoction in Cameroon as an eye drop (Focho et al., 2009a).
Despite the use as eye drop, no information is available on the
possible irritant or toxic properties of this plant. This species was
shown to have antiplasmodial activity (Muregi et al., 2003) and
antimicrobial activity (Hamill et al., 2003) in vitro though no
reports were found on traditional use related to these actvities.
3.1.12. Vernonia bahamensis Griseb.
As implied by the name, Vernonia bahamensis is native to
Bahamas and it is used to control jaundice (Gupta et al., 1993).
3.1.13. Vernonia betonicaefolia Baker
Vernonia betonicaefolia Synonym Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob.
is used in Madagascan folk medicine as a febrifuge (Rasoanaivo et al.,
1992). A plant by the name Cyanthillium cinereum was found to be
routinely used against numerous conditions in India (Guha et al.,
2009). Interestingly, Vernonia cinerea was listed as the synonym for
Cyanthillium cinereum in the study (Guha et al., 2009). This brings to
light a major identification problem as IPNI (ipni.org) list Cyanthillium
cinereum and Vernonia cinerea as totally different plants. The Plant List
(theplantlist.org) however list Cyanthillium cinereum as the synonym
of Vernonia betonicaefolia. Because no plant name database has been
found that indicates Vernonia cinerea as a synonym of Cyanthillium
cinereum it is very likely that the study carried out by Guha et al.
(2009) including all its folk uses may be associated with Vernonia
cinerea and not Vernonia betonicaefolia. In addition, Guha et al. (2009)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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reported that sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from
Cyanthillium cinereum and referenced Chea et al. (2006). Chea et al.
(2006) isolated sesquiterpenes from Vernonia cinerea and the paper
makes no mention of Cyanthillium cinereum. It is thus recommended
that future studies on the species pay particular attention to its
identification.
3.1.14. Vernonia biafrae Oliv. & Hiern
Despite the acclaimed potency of this species in treating or
alleviating headache, fever and filarial worms in the eye (Burkill,
1985), no further ethnobotanical survey carried out after 1970 has
documented the use of this species even though it is distributed
throughout West Africa.
3.1.15. Vernonia blumeoides Hook. F.
Vernonia blumeoides is used in Nigeria to treat malaria and
unspecified infectious diseases (Aliyu et al., 2011a).
3.1.16. Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm.
The use of this plant to treat backache and chicken pox is
suggestive of the fact that the plant may possess muscle relaxant
and antiinflammatory as well as antiviral properties (Moshi et al.,
2010). The preliminary antiplasmodial property of the plant was
confirmed following the isolation of antiprotozoal coumarins and
sesquiterpenes from the roots and leaves of the plant (OketchRabah et al., 1997, 1998).
3.1.17. Vernonia brasiliana (L.) Druce
This species is considered poisonous and its use is restricted in
Brazil (Rodrigues, 2007). The plant has been shown to have antiplasmodial activity in vitro and in vivo (Carvalho et al., 1991). Ameida
Alves et al. (1997) reported the isolation of antiplasmodial triterpenes
from the plant. The crude extract at 1000 mg/kg showed 45%
parasitaemia clearance in vivo but none of the pure triterpenes were
active against Plasmodium berghei in vivo despite the fact that one of
the compounds isolated showed 45% clearance at 25 mg/ml against
Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. The lack of in vivo activity could be
attributed to several factors including poor metabolism and bioavailability in addition to other factors.
17
was assigned to it but Correa et al. (2011) found no DNA
inhibition activity and moderate cytotoxicity in the extracts of
this plant.
3.1.22. Vernonia chalybaea Mart. ex DC
Vernonia chalybaea is used in Brazil as a treatment for edema and
liver disease (Albuquerque et al., 2007). Bohlmann et al. (1982)
isolated Glaucolide B from this plant. Studies by other investigators
have shown that Glaucolide B has antibacterial, cytotoxic and
clastogenic activity (Lopes, 1991; Burim et al, 1999). It is as such to
be expected that this plant may have significant medicinal potential.
3.1.23. Vernonia chapelieri Drake
Vernonia chapelieri is used in Madagascar to treat malaria
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.24. Vernonia chinensis Less.
Vernonia chinensis is used in China to treat colds, headache,
bacteria infections and wounds (Xie, 1975). The plant is the
source of several cytotoxic sesquiterpenes including Vernchinilide
A, B and E (Chen et al., 2005).
3.1.25. Vernonia cinerascens Sch. Bip
This species is used to treat gastritis, urinary tract infections,
male sterility, navel aches, constipation and internal ulcers
(Hussain et al., 2010). Vernonione isolated from the plant showed
urease inhibitory activity (Ahmad et al., 2012). A previous study
of the species resulted in the isolation of compounds with
supposed antioxidant as well as urease inhibitory activity
(Ahmad et al., 2011).
3.1.20. Vernonia campeana S. Moore
The reports on the use of this species are so far limited to
Uganda. Two independent surveys have reported the use of this
species in treating fever (Hamill et al., 2003; Ssegawa and
Kasenene, 2007). The fever in each case is associated with malaria
and stomach ache, the activity might thus be antipyretic but also
related to malaria.
3.1.26. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less
Vernonia cinerea is reportedly used in folk medicine in East and
West Africa as well as in India and South America. There are cross
similarities in some of the uses across the continents especially
against ailments such as malaria, infertility, skin conditions and
worms (Jain and Puri, 1984; Moshi et al., 2009; Padal et al., 2010).
This species is also claimed to have antidepressant action (Muir,
1981). In ethnoveterinary medicine, this plant is used against food
poisoning and fever (Galav et al., 2010). Various bioactivity
studies have confirmed some of the medicinal properties of this
species notably, the analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial and antifungal effects (Tables 6a and 6b). This
species is also the source of cytotoxic and antiplasmodial sesquiterpene lactones especially the vernolides (Table 8). Supplementation with preparations of Vernonia cinerea combined with
exercise provided beneficial effect on reduced smoking rate which
may be related to oxidative stress and beta-endorphine levels
(Leelarungrayub et al., 2010). The callus root cultures are a source
of alkaloids (Maheshwari et al., 2007). The most indepth studies
on the pharmacology of this plant has been carried out by
Pratheeshkumar and Kuttan (2009, 2010a, 2010b, 2011a, 2011b,
2011c, 2011d, 2012a, 2012b) evaluating both the crude extract
and the sesquiterpene vernolide A (63) focusing on the possible
cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. The ethnobotanical surveys
combined with bioactivity and phytochemical studies make this
a very promising plant for in depth studies of the activities and
the subsequent development of various standardized remedies or
pure compounds.
3.1.21. Vernonia canescens HBK
Vernonia canescens is used in the Bahamas to control bleeding,
inflammation and as an enema (Gupta et al., 1993). It is considered to be a medicinal plant in Colombia even though no use
3.1.27. Vernonia cistifolia O. Hoffm.
Very little is known about the use of this species in folk
medicine. The only report available on the use of this species in
ethnomedicine is for nasopharyngeal illness (Burkill 1985).
3.1.18. Vernonia brazzavillensis Aubrév. Ex Compe re
Vernonia brazzavillensis is used to treat malaria in folk medicine in Congo (Mbatchi et al., 2006). The in vitro antiplasmodial
activity of this species has been confirmed providing preliminary
justification for the use of this species against malaria.
3.1.19. Vernonia calvoana Hook. F.
This species is amongst the less known species of the genus.
The only report on the ethnomedicinal uses of this species is
found in Focho et al. (2009b) to relief navel aches and constipation. Further studies are required to confirm the claimed folk uses
of this plant and to identify the bioactive compounds in this plant.
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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of Vernonia colorata and Vernonia amygdalina seems an important first
step, before starting extensive activity studies. A metabolomics
approach might be an interesting and fast way to identify in both
species the compounds related to activity (Wang et al., 2005a).
3.1.30. Vernonia condensata Baker
This species is commonly used in Brazil and Nigeria. The common
use of the plant in Brazil and Nigeria is for protection against snake
bite (Pereira et al., 1994 and Houghton and Osibogun, 1993). The
plant extract (100 mg/kg) produced a survival rate of 60% for mice
injected with 5 mg/kg jararaca snake venom after 48 h compared to
zero survival for mice in the control group (Pereira et al., 1994). Other
indications of the species in Brazil mostly concern use in managing
GIT conditions. Analgesic and ulcerogenic properties have been
confirmed in the plant (Frutuoso et al., 1994). Monteiro et al.
(2001) carried out toxicological evaluation of the tea extract and
concluded that the extract showed low acute toxicity and had neither
teratogenic nor mutagenic properties. Valverde et al. (2001) isolated
vernonioside B2 from Vernonia condensata with analgesic and antiinflammatory properties.
3.1.31. Vernonia conferta Benth.
West Africa and Nigeria in particular is where Vernonia
conferta is reported to be used in folk medicine. The plant is used
as a galactogogue, aphrodisiac, laxative, against stomachache,
whooping-cough, convulsive-cough, bronchitis, asthma, wounds,
sores, jaundice, poison-antidote, diuretic, gonococcal orchitis,
diarrhoea, constipation, worms, ophthalmias and abscesses
(Burkill, 1985; Ajibesin et al., 2008). The plant is used in Zairean
pharmacopoeia as antivenom (Chifundera, 1987). In a bioactivity
confirmation study against the filarial worm (loa–loa), Mengome
et al. (2010) found inhibitory activity while the root, showed
relatively low cytotoxic activities (Ayim et al., 2007). The plant is
used in ethnoveterinary medicine in Nigeria (Chah et al., 2009).
Fig. 2. Root samples of Vernonia guineensis (A) compared with root samples of
American ginseng (B) and white Chinese ginseng (C). The root morphology of the
three plants are very similar and seem to have one common biological effect as a
stimulant and that may be why these plants are all called ginseng despite
belonging to different plant genus.
The plant is also reported to be used in the diet of gorillas in the
Central African region (Cousins and Huffman, 2002).
3.1.28. Vernonia cognata Less
Vernonia cognata is used as an immune enhancer and this has
been confirmed in vitro (Petri et al., 2008). Glaucolide B was
isolated from the extract of this plant Bardón et al. (1988). Studies
by other investigators have shown that Glaucolide B has antibacterial, cytotoxic and clastogenic activity (Lopes, 1991; Burim
et al, 1999). The plant extract showed antioxidant activity in an
in vivo rat model (Mota et al., 2011). Glaucolide B has also been
shown to have molluscicidal activity (Alarcon et al., 1990).
3.1.29. Vernonia colorata Drake
Vernonia colorata is the second most popular species of the
Vernonia genus after Vernonia amygdalina. The plant is used throughout sub-Saharan Africa medicinally against a plethora of conditions
(Table 4). In vitro antibacterial and antiplasmodial activity has been
reported for a pure molecule (Vernodalin) isolated from the plant
(Rabe et al., 2002; Chukwujekwu et al., 2009). Other bioactive
compounds isolated from Vernonia colorata includes, vernolide, Vernolide D, Dihydrovernolide, dihydrovernodalin (Rabe et al., 2002;
Kraft et al., 2003; Chukwujekwu et al., 2009). A chemical comparison
3.1.32. Vernonia cruda Klatt
Vernonia cruda is erroneously referred in the two publications
found as Vernoniacrudia. This species is reported to be used
against sexually transmitted diseases (Van Puyvelde et al., 1983;
Vermani and Garg, 2002). However, it did not show acivity
against gonorrhea in vitro.
3.1.33. Vernonia cumingiana Benth.
Vernonia cumingiana is reported to be used to treat inflammation in China. Liu et al. (2009) isolated seven new Vernocuminosides from the plant of which Vernocuminoside B showed potent
anti-inflammatory activity while the other compounds showed
only marginal activity. In another study, several stigmatane type
glycosides were also isolated from the species and found to have
only weak anti-inflammatory activity (Liu et al., 2010). The antiinflammatory compounds isolated support the use of this species
in the management of several inflammation related ailments.
The claimed traditional use against malaria is yet to be studied.
3.1.34. Vernonia deppeana Less.
Vernonia deppeana is used as an antifungal for dermatitis and for
stomachache (Gupta et al., 1993; Folliard, 2008; Svetaz et al., 2010).
3.1.35. Vernonia extensa DC
Vernonia extensa is used in Thailand as a stimulant (Ponglux
et al., 1992). Two bitter principles have been isolated from this
species in addition to a number of other steroid glycosides
(Ponglux et al., 1992).
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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3.1.36. Vernonia fasciculata Michx.
This is one of only two Vernonia species reported to be used as
an herbal remedy in USA as an alterative (to restore to normal
health) and tonic (Smyth, 1903). One report on the use of this
species in the US dates back to Cook (1869)). Cook (1869)
indicates the root is bitter, with stimulating and relaxing qualities, and leaving a full tonic impression when taken. The plant is
used in painful menstruation, leucorrhea, ague, as a hepatic and
was prescribed by physicians (Cook, 1869). The flowers also have
medicinal value and Cook (1869) thought they are superior to
Chamomile.
3.1.37. Vernonia fastigiata Oliv. & Hiern
Vernonia fastigiata is used against malaria. In vitro studies have
confirmed the antiplasmodial activity of this species has thus
lending support to its use in folk medicine (Clarkson et al., 2004).
Roos et al. (1998) isolated five antibacterial compounds from
extracts of this plant.
3.1.38. Vernonia ferruginea Less.
Vernonia ferruginea is used in Bolivia against inflammatory
conditions (Malafronte et al., 2009). In a phytochemical study
several flavonoids were isolated from this species (Malafronte
et al., 2009).
3.1.39. Vernonia filigera Oliv. & Hiern
This species is used mainly in ethnoveterinary medicine for the
treatment of trypanosomiasis (Teklehaymanot, 2009). In phytochemical studies, the pharmacologically important sesquiterpene lactones
vernolepin and vernodalin have been isolated from the above ground
parts of this plant (Abegaz et al., 1994).
3.1.40. Vernonia fontinalis S. Moore
Vernonia fontinalis is one of the lesser known species of the
Vernonia genus. In Rwanda, it is used in ethnomedicine to treat
hepatitis (Mukazayire et al., 2011).
3.1.41. Vernonia galamensis Less.
Vernonia galamensis is more known as a plant of commerce for
the value of its seed oil than for its medicinal potential (Baye
et al., 2001; McClory and Atkinson, 2010). Commercial tablet
preparations of this plant are now available for use against
diabetes (Autamashih et al., 2011). At an oral dose of 5000 mg/
kg in rats, no toxicity or adverse effects were observed for extracts
from this plant. The leaf and root extracts of Vernonia galamensis
also demonstrated membrane stabilizing property as determined
by the percentage inhibition of RBC lysis in vitro (Johri et al.,
1995). Most of the phytochemical studies on the plant have
focused on the essential oils found in the seed (Ncube et al.,
1998).
3.1.42. Vernonia gerberiformis Oliv. & Hiern
Vernonia gerberiformis is used in Angola as a piscicide (Bossard,
1993).
3.1.43. Vernonia glaberrima Welw. ex O. Hoffm.
Vernonia glaberrima is reported to be used against malaria,
migraine, psoric and dysmenorrhoea (Van Wyk and Gericke,
2000; Burkill, 1985; Ananil et al., 2000). Ananil et al. (2000)
carried out bioactivity screening of this plant for antiviral and
antimicrobial activities. The plant extract showed antibacterial
activity but the information on the antiviral activity was
inconclusive.
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3.1.44. Vernonia glabra (Steetz) Oliv. & Hiern
This species is used in ethnomedicine against diabetes,
wounds, gonorrhoea and dysentery (Burkill, 1985; Long, 2005).
The stated ethnomedicinal uses of this species have not been
verified. The species has, however, been shown to have blood
pressure ameliorating properties (Achola et al., 1996).
3.1.45. Vernonia grantii Oliv.
Vernonia grantii is reported to be used against schistosomiasis
infection in Africa (Hostettman, 1984). The leaves and roots are used
in ethnoveterinary medicine to control worms in livestock (Nalule
et al., 2011).
3.1.46. Vernonia guineensis Benth.
Vernonia guineensis is gradually gaining popularity as one of the
most used Vernonia species in Central Africa and in Cameroon in
particular where it is commonly referred to as the African ginseng.
This is not surprising because the root morphology have a striking
resemblance to that of Panax ginseng (Fig. 2). Studies point to the use
of the plant in the treatment of various ailments in human and
ethnoveterinary medicine as presented in Tables 3–5. Recent studies
have confirmed the presence of antitrypanosomal compounds in the
root extract (Tchinda et al., 2002). Since malaria and trypanosomiasis
are both protozoan borne, the use of this plant to treat malaria could
be linked to the same compounds with antitrypanosomal acitivity
identified by Tchinda et al. (2002). Our research has also confirmed
the presence of cytotoxic activity in the crude extract against cancer
cell lines providing preliminary support for its folk use against
prostate cancer (Toyang et al., 2012a). Given the increasing popularity
of this species in ethnomedicine, more studies are necessary to
validate the claimed medicinal properties and safety of this species.
3.1.47. Vernonia herbacea Rusby
This species is one of the poisonous species of Vernonia in
Brazil (Rodrigues, 2007). Despite the restricted use of this species
in ethnomedicine, the roots were found to possess inulin which is
used to measure the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in kidney
function studies. Dias-Tagliacozzo et al. (1996) was able to
demonstrate that inulin from Vernonia herbacea was as good as
imported inulin used to determine GFR in experiments of kidney
microperfusion as a marker of tubular water reabsorption. This
species as such provides a substance useful in research and
diagnosis.
3.1.48. Vernonia hildebrandtii Vatke
This species is native to Tanzania. Mental disease, cough,
diarrhoea, and strangulated hernia are some of the conditions
treated with Vernonia hildebrandtii including inducing emesis
(Hedberg et al., 1982).
3.1.49. Vernonia hirsuta (DC.) Sch. Bip.
Notable amongst the uses of this plant is its antimalarial
activity which has been confirmed in vitro (Clarkson et al.,
2004). Colic, sore throat, cough & headache are some of the
additional treatments used in ethnomedicine (Hutchings et al.,
1996; Clarkson et al., 2004).
3.1.50. Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Hochst.
Vernonia hochstetteri is used in ethnomedicine to treat hepatitis (Mukazayire et al., 2011).
3.1.51. Vernonia hymenolepis Vatke
Hypertension and neonatal respiration problems are some of
the conditions treated with Vernonia hymenolepis (Mengome
et al., 2010). The plant extract was active against the loa loa
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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filarial parasite (Mengome et al., 2010). Two antitumor elemanolide sesquiterpene lactones, Vernolepin (55) and vernomenin (58)
have been isolated from Vernonia hymenolepis (Kupchan et al.,
1968, 1969b).
3.1.52. Vernonia incana Less
This species is not linked to any ethnomedicinal use in this
review. Bardón et al. (2007) however showed that the chloroform
extract possessed antibacterial activity in vitro especially against
gram positive bacteria. The plant extract was not toxic in the
brine shrimp lethality assay as well as in the molluscicidal assay.
3.1.53. Vernonia jugalis Oliv. & Hiern
The reported use of this species is mainly in East Africa.
Separate studies in Tanzania and Uganda recorded different uses
for the species. In Tanzania the plant is used to promote birth,
treat stomachache and whole plant to cure epilepsy (Hedberg
et al., 1982) and in Uganda Vernonia jugalis is used to treat malaria
(Hamill et al., 2003).
3.1.54. Vernonia karaguensis Oliv. & Hiern
This species is claimed to have anti HIV activity (James 2007).
In terms of bioactivity, the species has been found to possess
antibacterial activity (Mungarulire, 1990).
3.1.55. Vernonia kenteocephala Baker
Vernonia kenteocephala is used as a febrifuge in Madagascar
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.56. Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. Synonym
Baccharoides adoensis var. kotschyana (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.)
Vernonia kotschyana is used in the treatment of a number of
ailments across Central and West Africa. In Mali, Vernonia
kotschyana is used in Malian folk medicine for the treatment of
gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, as an aid to ameliorate digestion
and as a wound healing remedy (Nergard et al., 2004). Germano
et al. (1996) confirmed the anti-ulcer activity of this species in an
in vivo study. In addition, the species has been found to possess
antibacterial as well as immunomodulating properties (Nergard
et al., 2005a, 2005b).
3.1.57. Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm.
The use of this species is restricted to East Africa. The plant is used
against malaria it has shown antiplasmodial activity in vitro (Irungu
et al., 2006; Muregi et al., 2007a,b). Other bioactivity studies carried
out have demonstrated possible cytotoxic, antiviral and antifungal
activities of Vernonia lasiopus (Koul et al., 2003). The leaf and root
extracts of Vernonia lasiopus also demonstrated membrane stabilizing
property as determined by the percentage inhibition of RBC lysis
in vitro (Johri et al., 1995).
3.1.58. Vernonia leiocarpa DC
Vernonia leiocarpa is used in El Salvador to treat asthma and in
Mexico to treat bacterial infections (Gupta et al., 1993; Meckes
et al., 1995).
3.1.59. Vernonia leopoldii Vatke
Vernonia leopoldii is used in Saudi Arabia and Yemen to treat
cough, colic and skin diseases (Al-Musayeib et al., 2012). The plant
extract has shown in vitro antiprotozoal, cytotoxic and antimicrobial
activity (Mothana et al., 2009; Al-Musayeib et al., 2012).
3.1.60. Vernonia macrocyanus O. Hoffm.
Only one reference has mentioned the use of this species in
ethnomedicine as a fish poison and to relief spasms in Angola
(Burkill, 1985).
3.1.61. Vernonia mapirensis Gleason
Vernonia mapirensis is used to relief inflammation in Bolivia
(Morales-Escobar et al., 2007).
3.1.62. Vernonia mespilifolia Less
This species is used only in ethnoveterinary medicine practices
(Dold and Cocks, 2001).
3.1.63. Vernonia miombicola Wild
Vernonia miombicola is used against viral and bacterial infections (Cos et al., 2002). The species was studied for antibacterial
and antiviral infections in vitro and the activity was found to be
weak (Cos et al., 2002).
3.1.64. Vernonia mollissima D. Don ex Hook. & Arn.
Vernonia mollissima is cited to be used as a diaphoretic to
enhance perspiration in Argentina (Goleniowski et al., 2006).
On the phytochemistry, sesquiterpenes have been isolated from
this plant (Catalán et al., 1986). Krebs et al. (1990) also reported
isolation work on the plant. Vernonia mollissima and Vernonia
rubricaulis have been reported to be toxic causing bloat and
hepatotoxicity in livestock in Brazil (Tokarnia et al., 2002).
3.1.65. Vernonia myriantha Hook. F.
This species is used in Southern Africa. The antimalarial
activity of the plant has been confirmed in vitro and the dichloromethane leaf extract was found to be most potent (Clarkson
et al., 2004). The root extract also showed moderate activity
against the plasmodium parasite. The plant is used to treat mental
illness as well as a contraceptive (Mabogo, 1990; Long, 2005).
3.1.66. Vernonia natalensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp.
As the name implies, this species is indigenous to South Africa
where it used to treat malaria and diarrhoea (Clarkson et al.,
2004; de Wet et al., 2008). The species has been independently
reported to possess antiplasmodial activity by two research
studies (Kraft et al., 2003; Clarkson et al., 2004. Fawole et al.
(2009) found anti-inflammatory activity in the plant extract
in vitro.
3.1.67. Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard
This is another species that is mostly found in South Africa.
It is reported to be used both in ethnomedicine to treat hysteria
and epilepsy (Stafford et al., 2008) and in ethnoveterinary
medicine to control worms (McGaw and Eloff, 2008). Bohlmann
et al. (1983) isolated terpene derivatives from this species even
though no studies have linked them to any bioactivity properties
of the plant.
3.1.68. Vernonia nestor S. Moore
Vernonia nestor is used against ringworm (antifungal condition) in Nigeria (Burkill, 1985).
3.1.69. Vernonia nigritiana Oliv. & Hiern.
This species is widely used in West Africa as an emetic,
emmenagogue, for blood purification, against rheumatism, as an
aphrodisiac amongst other uses listed in Table 3. No bioactivity
studies in regard to the claimed ethnomedicinal uses have been
reported. However, a bitter glycoside, vernonin has been isolated
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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from the roots. Vernonin has a digitalis (digoxin) like action on
the heart but it is weaker than digoxin (Burkill, 1985).
3.1.70. Vernonia noveboracensis (L.) Willd.
This is one of the 2 species of Vernonia reported to be used in
USA. This report on this species dates back to 1903 and it is used
as an alterative and as a tonic (Smyth, 1903). The species has also
been found to have contact dermatitis effect (Fortina et al., 2002).
3.1.71. Vernonia nudicaulis Less.
Vernonia nudicaulis is used in Madagascar to treat venereal
disease (Aliyu et al., 2011a).
3.1.72. Vernonia oligocephala Edgew
Vernonia oligocephala is a species found mainly in Southern
Africa and it is used in ethnomedicine to treat malaria, stomach
disorders, rheumatism, dysentery, diabetes and ulcerative colitis
(Clarkson et al., 2004; Long, 2005; Thring and Weitz, 2006; de
Wet et al., 2008; Deutschlander et al., 2009). The antiplasmodial
activity of this plant has been confirmed in vitro (Clarkson et al.,
2004).
3.1.73. Vernonia oocephala Baker
Vernonia oocephala is used in Nigeria to treat malaria and a
number of unspecified infectious diseases (Aliyu et al., 2011a).
3.1.74. Vernonia pachyclada Baker
This species is endemic to Madagascar and it is used for wound
healing. Phytochemical studies of the species led to the isolation
of cytotoxic sesquiterpenes from the plant (Williams et al., 2005).
3.1.75. Vernonia patens Kunth
Vernonia patens is used in Panamanian ethnomedicine as a
antipyretic to control fever (Gupta et al., 1993). The methanol
extract of the stem and leaf of this plant showed activity in a brine
shrimp and crown gall tumor inhibition assay suggesting the
plant may have cytotoxic properties (Gupta et al., 1996).
3.1.76. Vernonia patula Mart. ex DC
This species is erroneously spelled as paltula in one of Ref. Ku et al.
(2002). It is considered to be one of only three Vernonia species in
Tawain (Chiu and Chang, 1987). It is used against hepatitis, inflammation, colds, as antipyretic and antiviral. The widest application of
this plant in ethnomedicine is in Bangladesh where it has over fifteen
folk medicinal uses (Saha and Paul, 2012). The plant material was
analyzed and found to have flavonoids which are thought to be
responsible for the claimed medicinal properties of the species (Ku
et al., 2002). The plant is amongst the few Vernonia species that are
claimed to have alkaloids even though no alkaloid has been reported
isolated from this species (Saha and Paul, 2012).
3.1.77. Vernonia pectoralis Baker
Vernonia pectoralis is used in folk medicine in Madagascar to
treat malaria (Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.78. Vernonia perrottetii Sch. Bip. ex Walp.
This plant is used as a purgative in West Africa (Burkill, 1985).
3.1.79. Vernonia pogosperma Klatt
Bioactivity studies to verify the claimed medicinal uses of this
species showed the presence of antibacterial and antiviral activity
(Vlietinck et al., 1995). This confirmed an earlier antimicrobial
activity study of the species (Boily and Van Puyvelde, 1986).
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3.1.80. Vernonia polyanthes Less.
This species has been reported to be used in Brazil to treat
rheumatism, bronchitis and cough (Braga et al., 2007). However,
the only bioactivity study of the plant is on its use to manage
blood pressure (Romanezi da Silveira et al., 2003). The plant has
been shown to have antiulcer effect (Barbastefano et al., 2007) as
well as antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity (Temponi
et al., 2012).
3.1.81. Vernonia polytricholepis Baker
Vernonia polytricholepis is used in Nigeria to treat fever and
respiratory conditions (Aliyu et al., 2011a).
3.1.82. Vernonia poskeana Vatke & Hildeb.
Vernonia poskeana is used mainly in Tanzania against cough,
fever and to prevent miscarriage (Burkill, 1985).
3.1.83. Vernonia potamophila Baker
Vernonia potamophila is used to treat cancers and dermatological problems (Babady-Bila et al., 2003).
3.1.84. Vernonia prolytricholepsis Baker
Vernonia prolytricholepsis is used in Madagascar as a febrifuge
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.85. Vernonia pumila Kotschy & Peyr.
The claimed uses for this species are as a stomachic by
improving stomach function and appetite, and against gonorrhoea
(Burkill, 1985). It is however not clear whether or not the species
is used for the same purposes in East and West Africa where it
is found.
3.1.86. Vernonia rhodolepsis Baker
Vernonia rhodolepsis is used in Madagascar as a febrifuge
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.87. Vernonia roxburghii Less.
Vernonia roxburghii is used in India to relief indigestion and
vomiting (Chandra et al., 1985).
3.1.88. Vernonia saligna DC
Vernonia saligna is used in India against respiratory tract
infection, tuberculosis and uterine prolapse (Huang et al., 2003).
3.1.89. Vernonia scorpioides Pers.
Vernonia scorpioides is used against skin disorders, wounds and
ulcers (Buskuhl et al., 2010) and as an aphrodisiac, and interestingly in witchcraft (Wong, 1976). This species of Vernonia has
received a reasonable bioactivity and phytochemical scrutiny.
Moderate bactericidal, fungicidal, wound healing, cytotoxicity to
cancer cells and anti-inflammatory properties have been exhibited by this plant in vitro (Table 7a). In regard to its phytochemistry, the first study report on the species was inDrew et al.
(1980). Several bioactive sesquiterpene lactones were isolated
from the species (Buskuhl et al., 2010). Lopes (1991) also reported
that sesquiterpene lactones isolated from this species demonstrated antifeedant, molluscicide, antimicrobial and analgelsic
activities.
3.1.90. Vernonia senegalensis Less.
Even though the author that reported the ethnomedicinal uses
of this species listed it as a synonym to Vernonia colorata Drake,
the International Plant Name Index (www.ipni.org) list Vernonia
senegalensis Less. as a separate species. Studies are thus required
to confirm the taxonomic classification of this species and to
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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Table 6c
Results of studies requiring validation or missing in some important data.
species
Study
Activity/results
Reference
adoensis Sch. Bip. exWalp
aemulans Vatke Oesterr.
amygdalina Del.
Antibacterial
Antibacterial, antiviral
Antibacterial
Antidysenterial
cytotoxicity
Sickle cell effect
Anthelmintic
Antioxidant
70 mg/ml
500 mg/ml
500 mg/ml
MIC 41000 mg/ml
IC50 ¼ 1000 mg/ml
Concentration used not stated
In vivo sheep: 3000 mg/kg
In vivo: 2 g/kg
Kisangau et al. (2007a)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Vlietinck et al. (1995)
Otshudi et al. (2000)
Gresham et al. (2008)
Afolabi et al. (2012)
Iqbal et al. (2006)
Mota et al., 2011
anthelmintica Willd.
cognata Less.
determine the differences in their chemical profiles. The plant is
associated with many ethnomedicinal uses against boils, gonorrhea, scabies, gastritis, sterility and frigidity (Hedberg et al., 1982)
none of which has been confirmed.
3.1.91. Vernonia serratuloides Kunth
Vernonia serratuloides Kunth synonym Vernonanthura serratuloides (Kunth) H.Rob. Vernonia serratuloides Kunth is used in
Mexico to relief toothache suggesting the plant may have antiinflammatory or numbing properties (Heinrich, 1996).
3.1.92. Vernonia smithiana Less.
In Congo, this species is used against various ailments including rheumatic pain (Table 4).
3.1.93. Vernonia spiciforma Klatt
Vernonia spiciforma is used in Madagascar as a febrifuge
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.94. Vernonia staehelinoides Mart. ex Baker
Vernonia staehelinoides is used against malaria (Pillay et al., 2007).
The antiplasmodial activity of this species has been confirmed in vitro
(Pillay et al., 2007). A bioactive compound (Hirsutinolide) was also
isolated from the plant and showed good selectivity against the
plasmodium parasite. It is a promising compound for development
against malaria.
3.1.95. Vernonia stellullifera (Benth.) C. Jeffrey
The whole plant is used in ethnomedicine in Cameroon to
prevent miscarriage and dysentery (Jiofack et al., 2010). It is also
said to be used as a ‘‘tetam.’’ Unfortunately no definition was
found for the term ‘‘tetam.’’
3.1.96. Vernonia stenocephala Oliv.
This species is used in Ugandan ethnomedicine to treat prehepatic jaundice (Ssegawa and kasenene, 2007).
3.1.97. Vernonia stipulacea Klatt
Vernonia stipulacea is used against viral related conditions in
South Africa particularly against the HIV virus. The methanol
extract of the plant stimulated reverse transcriptase activity in
the HIV-1 virus at 100 mg/ml (Bessong et al., 2005). Percentage
inhibition of the virus was however low. The authors of the study
indicate that the activity though weak could be linked to
sesquiterpene lactones known to be present in Vernonia species
but no phytochemical studies have been carried out to the
compounds present in the plant.
3.1.98. Vernonia subuligera O. Hoffm.
The root of this species is used as a galactogogue. The plant is
used in Uganda for the treatment of sleeping sickness and has
been confirmed to have antitrypanosomial activity (Freiburghaus
et al., 1996).
3.1.99. Vernonia tenoreana Oliv.
This species was not recorded to have any folk use. However,
the species showed antidiabetic activity in a random screen
(Taiwo et al., 2008).
3.1.100. Vernonia teres Wall ex DC
The whole plant of Vernonia teres is used in India to treat
ulcers, wounds and as an acaricide (Garg and Siddique, 1992;
Johri and Singh, 1997).
3.1.101. Vernonia thomsoniana Oliv. & Hiern ex Oliv.
Mungarulire (1990) studied this Zulu medicinal plant for its
claimed antibacterial activity and found it to be active against a
selected number of bacteria species.
3.1.102. Vernonia tigna Klatt
Two independent research studies point to the use of this
species as an abortifacient (Mabogo, 1990; Long, 2005).
3.1.103. Vernonia trichoclada Gleason
Vernonia trichoclada is used in Bolivia to relieve inflammatory
conditions (Morales-Escobar et al., 2007).
3.1.104. Vernonia trichodesma Baker
Vernonia trichodesma is used in Madagascar as a febrifuge
(Rasoanaivo et al., 1992).
3.1.105. Vernonia tweedieana Baker
Vernonia tweedieana was studied and found to have immune
enhancing effects (Petri et al., 2008). Organic solvent extracts of
the plant showed antibacterial activity and yielded flavonoids in a
phytochemical study of the species (Diaz et al., 2008).
3.1.106. Vernonia undulata Oliv. & Hiern
This species is used in Gabon as an enema and for piles
(Burkill, 1985).
3.1.107. Vernonia usambarensis O. Hoffm.
Vernonia usambarensis is used in Tanzania to control excessive
menses (Hedberg et al., 1982).
3.1.108. Vernonia venosa S. Moore
Vernonia venosa is used against bacterial infections in Sudanese ethnomedicine (Al Magboul et al., 1988). The in vitro antibacterial activity of this species has been confirmed (Al Magboul
et al, 1988).
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OH
OH
OH
OH HO
HO
OH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
O
O
1. Luteolin
OH
O
Luteolin 7-O-B-glucoside
2. Methyl caffeate
OH
HO
O
OH
O
O
HO
OH
3.
OH
O
OH
HO
O
O
OH
O
4. Luteolin 4'-O-glucoside
OH
5. Lutein
6. Urticifolene
HO
CO2H
OH
O
HO
O
HO
O
HO
O
O
OH
O
OH
O
HO
OH
8. Chlorogenic acid
OH
OH
OH
7. 3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid
OH
O
HO
HO
OH
OH
O
O
HO
HO
OH
O
O
OH
O
O
HO
OH
O
HO
OH
O
10. Gallic acid
HO
O
OH
O
HO
OH
9. 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid
OH
OH
11. 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid
Fig. 3. Bioactive compounds isolated from Vernonia species. Their biological activity, sources and names are given in Table 8. A total of 103 bioactive compounds are
included in this review.
3.1.109. Vernonia zeylanica Less
Vernonia zeylanica is a Shrub 1–2.5 m tall and endemic to Sri
Lanka. This plant, especially the stem is used in the treatment of
boils and bone fractures (Ratnasooriya et al., 2007).
3.2. In vitro activity analysis
The crude extracts of 40 plants were identified to have been
evaluated for various bioactivity effects involving over 150 in vitro
studies (Table 6a). Five of the in vitro studies were considered
questionable due to the high dose of extract used raising questions
as to whether it was possible to achieve such doses in vitro (Table 6c).
The top 5 in vitro studies included antimicrobial, antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial and cytotoxicity studies. Most of
the assays used in the in vitro experiments are standard assays
routinely used to screen for bioactivity in the early phase of the drug
discovery process. Despite the fact that standard assays were used in
the studies covered in this review, there is no guarantee that plants
showing potent activity in vitro will also have good efficacy without
toxicity in vivo. Toxicity as such is probably the next most important
consideration once any activity has been established in vitro.
The claimed in vitro active dose for the studies reported ranged
from o1 mg/ml to several mg/ml depending on the type of assay.
Samples reported to be having activity at very high doses (e.g.,
Table 6c) will certainly not be able to make it in vivo as a large
quantity of the sample will be required to dose the animals possing
sample preparation, administration and potential toxicity problems.
Generally, it is expected that the compounds or extracts active at
lower microgram per ml concentrations will have a better chance of
showing activity in vivo as a smaller quantity of the sample will be
required to produce the desired effect. Even though establishing
activity thresholds for different assays might prove to be useful, a
careful selection of candidates for in vivo studies will always require
a combination of criteria including in vitro activity, formulation,
route of administration, pharmacokinetics and toxicity.
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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OH
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OCH3
13
12. Vernonione
HO
O
R1
OH
HO
RO
R4
HO
R2
OH
R3
R1
R2
R3
R4
O
N
O
16. R=CH3
17. R=H
HN
O
18. Uridine
14. Vanillic acid COOH -OCH3 OH H
15. Methyl gallate COOH OH
OH OH
R1
OH
R2
O
O
HO
OR
H
H
OH
OH
O
O
O
O
1
2
21. R = CH 3, R = H
22. R1 = H,
R 2 = CH 3
19. 3'-methylquercetin R=CH3
20. Quercetin
R=H
Fig. 3. Continued.
3.3. In vivo activity analysis
About 110 in vivo studies utilizing crude extracts from 18 Vernonia
species were reviewed (Table 6b). Almost 50% of these studies were
carried out on Vernonia amygdalina with a majority of the studies
focusing on its antidiabetic activity. The top 3 diseases or conditions
studied in vivo included diabetes, inflammation and malaria.
Due to the fact that in vivo studies are usually more expensive and
complicated, they often come in only after bioactivity has been
determined in vitro. Establishment of in vivo activity is very important
as it is the best predictor that a plant extract may or may not have
clinical utility and as such determines the potential for further
development studies. While the data in Table 6b may point to some
activity of the Vernonia species studied, it is difficult to state
categorically what might work clinically. The fact is that even though
the methods used in the studies are mostly based on well known
protocols, there are many factors (e.g., animal breed, sex, age, diet,
health status and environment) that could lead to variation in
experimental outcomes. For example, the antidiabetic effect of the
leaves of Vernonia amygdalina was evaluated in about 11 different
studies in rats and the ED50 based on effect on fasting glucose levels
varied from 100 mg/kg to 800 mg/kg (Table 6b). Similarly, the
antimalarial activity of Vernonia amygdalina was evaluated in 6 studies
in mice and one human study (Table 6). The values of the active dose
varied from 125 mg/kg to 1000 mg/kg with 67% parasitaemia clearance at 125 mg/kg for 4 days compared to 82.3% clearance at
1000 mg/kg for 4 days. By comparison, the antidiabetic and antimalarial ED50s were less than the 14-day chronic toxicity dose of
42000 mg/kg reported in mice for Vernonia amygdalina (Njan et al.,
2008). Judging from this example, the reported active dose for the
same plant could vary significantly between studies. Due to the fact
that it is difficult to overcome this variation, the significance of the
ED50 of each experiment should never be considered in isolation
without taking into account other factors such as formulation,
pharmacokinetics and toxicity.
Two in vivo studies were considered questionable due to the
high dose of extract used raising questions as to whether it was
practical to achieve such doses in a clinical setting (Table 6c).
3.4. Clinical trials
Human studies or clinical trials usually come last in the drug
discovery process. In ethnomedicine, human trials can however
be considered validation studies as ethnomedicines generally are
already being used in folk medicines in humans before the arrival
of researchers to evaluate the efficacy and safety of selected
remedies. In this review, only Vernonia species was found to have
been subjected to a human study (Table 6b). Vernonia amygdalina
was used in 2 human trials against malaria and diabetes. The
antimalarial activity was found to be weak at the dose tested as
only 32% of participants had total parasite clearance following
7 days of treatment (Challand and Willcox, 2009). In regard to the
antidiabetic effect in humans, Okolie et al (2008) reported that
Vernonia amygdalina elicited significant reductions (Po 0.05) in
blood glucose levels at a dose of 50 g/participant. More studies are
certainly required with larger sample size to validate the results
of these preliminary trials as well as other claims that have
demonstrated good activity in vivo.
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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H
H
H
H
H
H
H
R2
H
H
H
HO
R1
O
H
H
H
H
O
24. B -amyrin R1=OH R 2=CH3
25. B -amyrin acetate R1=OAc R2=CH3
26.. Oleanolic acid R1=OH R 2= COOH
23.α-amyrin
H
H
27. Lupenyl acetate
H
R 1O
OH
O H
H
H
O
H
O
H
H
H
H
HO
R
H
28. Lupeol
R 2O
H
31. Vernoguinosterol R1=R 2=H
32. Vernoguinoside (R1=H, R2=Glc)
29. Friedelanone
R= =O
30. Friedelin acetate R= OCOCH3
HO
O
OH
O
O
OH
OH
HO
HO
O
O
O
OH
H 3 CO
O
O
O
33. Vernoguinoside A
HO
R3
OH
O
OH
OH
R2
OH
HO
O
H
R1
34. Vernonioside A3
35. Vernonioside B1
O
H
R1
Glco
Glco
HO
OH
36. Vernonioside B2
R2 R3
O H
H,H OH
Fig. 3. Continued.
3.5. Toxicity aspects of the Vernonia genus
Vernonia herbacea and Vernonia colorata are the only two
species of Vernonia identified in ethnomedicine as poisonous
(Rodrigues, 2007; Maiga et al, 2005). A number of limited studies
have been carried out to determine the safety of commonly used
Vernonia species. Amole et al., 2006 and Njan et al., 2008 found no
toxicity effect in extracts of Vernonia amygdalina in in vivo rat
studies. In another Vernonia amygdalina study, the plant extract
exhibited hepatoprotective and not hepatoxic effect in rats
(Ojiako and Nwanjo, 2006). In acute toxicity studies in a rabbit
model, Akah and Okafor (1992) observed an LD50 of 1122 mg/kg
through intraperitoneal injection using an extract of Vernonia
amygdalina. Yoga Latha et al. (2011) and Rajamurugan et al.
(2011) found no toxicity in mice (LD50 42000 mg/kg) and
brineshrimp using a methanol extract of Vernonia cineria. A tea
from the leaves of Vernonia condensata produced an LD50 of
3400 mg/kg for males and 5000 mg/kg for female mice
(Monteiro et al., 2001). In another study, the most lethal extract
of Vernonia condensata using a single solvent was found to be the
dichloromethane extract with LD50 of 500 mg/kg while the aqueous and ethanol extracts showed LD50 42000 mg/kg (Risso
et al., 2010). However, the acetone extract with an LD50 of
1000 mg/kg showed the best margin of safety (370.4) compared
with its antinociceptive activity (ED50:2.7 mg/kg). Apart from the
in vivo studies, several in vitro studies have been carried out on
the cytotoxicity, embryotoxicity, mutagenicity and genotoxicity
of some Vernonia species (Ananil et al., 2000; Zhu et al., 2008;
Monteiro et al., 2001; Elgorashi et al., 2003). Glaucolide B from
Vernonia eremophila showed no clastogenic action on mammalian
cells in vivo but was cytotoxic and clastogenic in vitro (Burim
et al., 1999). Because most of the reported cytotoxicity studies
involved more cancer cell lines than normal cell lines, most of
these studies would be associated with anticancer rather than
general toxicity.
It is worth noting that Vernonia noveboracensis was implicated in
a case of contact dermatitis in a human subject (Fortina et al., 2002).
3.6. Phytochemistry of the Vernonia genus: Bioactive compounds
3.6.1. Alkaloids
A relatively small number of species of the Vernonia genus
have been reported to contain alkaloids. Qualitative phytochemical studies have led to the identification of alkaloids in
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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OH
OH
O
OH
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
H
CH3
OH
O
O
O
O
H
H
CH3
OH
O
39. Lasiopulide
O
O
O
38. 11β, 13-Dihydrovernodalin
37. Vernodalol
O
OCOMe
O
OCOMe
OH
OCOMe
OCOMe
O
HO
R1O
O
OCOMe
OR2
HO
O
O
O
O
43. Glaucolide B
O
42. Glaucolide
O
O
O
O
OCOMe
O
O
O
O
40. R1 = CH 3 ; R2= 4-OH-methacryloyl
41. R1= H; R2=4-OH-methacryloyl
O
O
OR
HO
O
O
O
O
O
O
44. R=Ac = Glaucolide K
45. R=H =Glaucolide L
HO
HO
46. Glaucolide M
OAc
O
O
OCOMe
OAc
O
O
O
O
O
O
OCOMe
47. Hirsutolide
O
48. Hirsutinolide
O
O
HO
O
HO
HO
O
O
49
OAc
O
OAc
O
HO
OR
OR2
I
O
O
CH2OR1
OAc
O
O
O
O
Piptocarphins
O
O
50
O
O
O
51. R = 4-OH-methacryloyl
52. R= methacryloyl
53. A
54. F
R1
II
III
O
R2
I
I
II
CH2CH3
III
Fig. 3. Continued.
Vernonia ambigua (Aliyu et al., 2011), Vernonia amygdalina
(Nwanjo, 2005; Ayoola et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2010),
Vernonia blumeoides (Aliyu et al., 2011), Vernonia cinerea
(Maheshwari et al., 2007 (1), Vernonia colorata (Neuwinger,
1996), Vernonia condensata (Risso et al., 2010), Vernonia
kotschyana (Deeni and Hussain 1994), Vernonia oocephala
(Aliyu et al., 2011) and Vernonia patula (Saha and Paul, 2012).
The quantitative identification and spectroscopic characterization of the alkaloids of the above identified species is required
for a better understanding of the role that these alkaloids play
in the bioactivity of these plants.
3.6.2. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are among the two major classes of compounds
encountered in the Vernonia genus (Carvalho et al., 1999). Most of
the flavones and phenolic compounds have been isolated from
Vernonia amygdalina and Vernonia cinerascens and have exhibited
potent antioxidant as well as urease inhibitory activity (Igile et al.,
1994; Ahmad et al., 2011). Reference has also been made to the
effect that the biological activity of several Vernonia species could
be attributed to the presence of flavonoids in the plants especially
their antioxidant activities (Atangwho et al., 2009; Khalafalla
et al., 2009; Kunle and Egharevba 2009). Table 8 presents
Vernonia species identified to be having bioactive flavonoids.
3.6.3. Terpenoids
Terpenoids or terpenes are the largest known class of secondary
metabolites in plants (Connolly and Hill, 1991). They play a role in
interaction of plants with their environment and have been shown to
have a broad range of biological activities such as antibiotic, cytotoxic,
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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O
O
O
H
H
O
O
OH
H
H
H
O
O
CH2OH
H
CH2OH
H
O
OH
H
H
H
H
O
55. Vernolepin
O
HO
56. Vernodalin
O
O
O
57. Vernodalinol
O
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
H
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
H
O
H
O
O
58. Vernomenin
O
60. 4,15 dihydrovernodalin
59. Epivernodalol
O
HO
H
O
H
O
H3CO
O
O
O H
O
H
O
H
O
O
OH
O
H
OH
H
H
H
O
H
O
O
O
61. 11, 13 dihydrovernodalin
62. Vernolide
63. Vernolide A
O
H
O
O
HO
H
CH2OH
H
O
H3CO
H
O
HO
O
O
O
H
H
H
O
O
O
H
OAc
H
OAc
O
O
O
O
O
64. Vernolide B
65. Vernolide D
66. Vernomygdin
O
H
O
O
H
HO
HO
OH
H
O
HO
O
O
O
H
O
H
H
H
O
OH
OEt
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
O
67. Hydroxyvernolide
68. Zulazanin D
69. Vernobockolide B
Fig. 3. Continued.
antimalarial, antifeedant, insecticidal, moluscidal and herbicidal properties (Zhang et al., 2005; Roberts, 2007; Gershenzon and Dudareva,
2007; Kaur et al., 2009). For example, the anticancer drug, Taxol and
the antimalarial drug Artemisinin are widely known terpene baseddrugs (Wang et al., 2005b). Terpenoids are thus an interesting target
for finding novel leads for medicines. Terpenoids are subdivided in to
monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and carotenoids. The monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are the main constituents of essential oils obtained from most plants of the Asteraceae
family including the Vernonia genus (Ogunbinu et al., 2009). Most of
the essential oils are known to be highly medicinal and aromatic, thus
their use in various applications including the perfumery industry.
Sesquiterpenes form the most interesting group of compounds
among the terpenoids in terms of structural diversity and biological activity (Matejić et al., 2010; Fraga, 2011). Merfort (2011) in
a review on the pharmacology of sesquiterpene lactones distinguished four major classes of sesquiterpenes: the germacranolides, eudesmanolides, guaianolides, and pseudoguaianolides. The
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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H
H
OR2
1
R O
OR2
R 1O
H
O
H
O
OR3
OR3
O
O
O
A
70.
72. R1=H R2=B
O
D
B
R2=C
O
Cl
OH
OH
R1=H
O
O
O
74.
C
R 3=Ac
71. R1=H
R 2=A
R 3=Ac
R 3=Ac
73. R1=H R 2=D
R 3=Ac
R1=H
R2=C
R3=Ac
O
O
HO
HO
HO
OR2
R1
R1
HO
H
O
O
H
O
H
O
OR3
OCH3
OR2
O
O
O
79
O
O
75. R1=H R2=C
HO
O
O
R1 R2
76. OH Me
77. H
Me
78. OH Ac
R 3=Ac
H
R 3O
OR2
O
H
O
OR1
O
OR1
OH
O
OR2
O
O
O
O
O
A=
B=
O
OAc
O
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
R1
H
H
H
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
R2
A
H
H
B
B
A
H
R3
H
H
CH3
H
CH3
CH3
H
OAc
O
O
O
O
91
O
87. R1 = H; R 2 = methcryloyl
88. R1 = H; R 2 = iso-butyroyl
89. R1 = H; R 2 = angeloyl
90. R1 = Ac; R2 = methacryloyl
Fig. 3. Continued.
sesquiterpene lactones are characterized by the presence of a
lactone group their structure. The lactone functionality has been
shown to be responsible for most of the biological activity of
members of this class of compounds especially when it comes to
cytotoxicity (Schmidt, 1999; Kuo et al., 2003; Buskuhl et al.,
2010). Apart from their interesting bioactivity, the understanding
of the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes combined with their
structural diversity has made these compounds to be useful in
the chemotaxonomy of the Asteraceae (Zdero et al., 1991; Zidorn,
2006).
Among plants of the Vernonia genus so far studied for biological activity, a good number of the biological activity claims have
been associated with the presence of terpenoids in the plants.
Despite the fact that the literature reports the isolation of
hundreds of terpenoids from the Vernonia genus, only a limited
number have been tested for bioactivity. Fig. 3 presents some of
the important biologically active terpenoids that have been
isolated from the Vernonia genus. Table 8 lists bioactive compounds isolated from Vernonia species and state their
bioactivities. This includes also bioactive compounds isolated
from Vernonia species not currently used in ethnomedicine to
the best of our knowledge.
3.6.4. Miscellaneous compounds
In addition to the flavonoid and several terpenoids identified
in the genus Vernonia with bioactivity, two coumarins and one
sucrose ester from the genus were also reported to be active.
Table 8 carries the bioactivity information of these compounds
while Fig. 2b illustrates the structures of the compounds.
4. Conclusion and recommendations
This review summarizes information on the ethnomedicinal
uses and confirmed in vitro and in vivo bioactivity of plants of the
genus Vernonia. The review confirms the importance of the genus
as a source of nutrition and medicine for humans, domesticated
as well as wild animals. Despite the great potential that this genus
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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O
O
H
O
O
O
HO
OH
O
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
93. 16, 17-Dihydrobrachycalyxolide
92. Eremantholide B
O
OH
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
H
O
O
O
O
H
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
95. Vernodalidimer B
O
H
O
OH
COOMe
O
94. Vernodalidimer A
H
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
H
O
MeO2C
O
O
H
H
O
H
O
97. Scorpioidine
O
98. 11B, 13-Dihydrovernolide
RO
2)-B-D-Glc
R= B-D-Gal-(1
96. Vernocuminoside B
OH
O
OH
O
O
O
O
O
CHO
O
R
O
O
OH
CHO
O
H
O
O
102. Vernomelitensin
OH
O
101. Vernopicrin
O
CH2OH
O
O
99. Tetrahydrovernodalin R= =CH 2
100. Hexahydrovernodalin R= -CH3
RO
RO
OR
O
103. Pentaisovaleryl sucrose
OR
R= isoveryl (COCH2CH(CH3)2)
CH2OH
OR
Fig. 3. Continued.
holds as a source of new drugs, much remains to be done to
properly document the folk uses of plants of this genus as the
basis of further studies aimed at the validation of claimed
bioactivities and finally, isolation and identification of the bioactive molecules, which are needed for quality control of possible
phytomedicines and which may serve as leads for developing
novel drugs.
We have made the best effort to summarize the information
available using figures and tables in addition to narratives. Tables
4–6 presents the folk and zoopharmacognostic uses of Vernonia
species whereas Tables 7 and 8 summarizes the results of in vitro
and in vivo studies of crude extracts and isolated compounds.
A combined analysis of this information can assist researchers in
the selection of interesting species or isolated compounds for
further studies. Validating the bioactivity of traditional uses of
these species will help establish evidence-based traditional medicine in regard to the Vernonia species.
In order to fully benefit from the potential medicinal and other
properties of this genus, the following future directions are
recommended:
4.1. Planning future ethnopharmacological studies
With approximately 1000 recorded species of the Vernonia
genus in existence, this review reveals that only about 10% of the
species have been documented in ethno studies for their folk uses.
The role of the ethnopharmacological based drug discovery
approach has been cited to be having advantage over random
plant collection and screening approach due to its higher probability to yield plants with bioactivity properties compared to the
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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Table 7
Q10 Vernonia species identified to be having bioactive flavonoids.
Vernonia species
Type of study
Flavonoids identified
Reference
ambigua
amygdalina
cinerea
Antimicrobial
Antioxidant
Antidiabetic
Leukaemia
Antiinflammatory
cognata
zeylenica
antioxidant
Antinociceptive activity
Based on crude extract analysis (CEA)
Isolated flavonoid (Table 9)
CEA
CEA
Luteolin
Luteolin 7-O-glucoside
Luteolin 49-O-glucoside
Chlorogenic acid
3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid
3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid
4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid
Methyl caffeate
Gallic acid
CEA
CEA
Kunle and Egharevba. (2009)
Igile et al. (1994)
Atangwho et al. (2009)
Khalafalla et al. (2009)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Abeysekera et al. (1999)
Mota et al., 2011
Ratnasooriya et al. (2007)
random approach (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Efforts to
continue the documentation of the folk uses of species of this as
well as other genuses is encouraged both for the purposes
of validating already existing information and for identification
of yet to be studied species as possible drug leads.
4.4. Assay selection
This review has identified 105 Vernonia species with claimed
medicinal properties. Out of this number, only 41 have undergone
any in vitro or in vivo validation studies (Table 7a and b). Amongst the
41 species that have been studied, less than 50% of the studies have
been in vivo involving only 18 species. Of all the in vivo studies carried
out, only 3 of the studies were in humans (Fortina et al, 2002; Okolie
et al., 2008; Challand and Willcox, 2009). The human clinical trial
especially by by Challand and Willcox (2009) showed that it was
feasible to run a clinical trial using a remedy prepared according to
traditional prescription. On the basis of the results obtained with only
32% complete clearance of the malaria parasite at a dose of 500 mg/
kg/day for 7 days, a follow up study utilizing a higher dose was
recommended since there was no apparent toxicity observed at the
dose used. Given the burden of malaria as the leading cause of death
in sub Sahara Africa and the poor access to recommended combination therapies, priority should be given to the confirmation and
possible optimization of the effect of Vernonia amygdalina clinically
against malaria and other conditions.
Assay selection is very important for sensitive and reproducibility of results in natural products research (Phillipson, 1995).
Vernonia amygdalina for example has been shown to have antimicrobial activity in numerous experiments but surprisingly,
Kubmarawa et al. (2007) found no antimicrobial in extracts of
this plant. Assay sensitivity and sample preparation are amongst
critical factors required for reproducibility of activity. Several
rapid and cheap assays have been developed for the screening of
plant extracts and isolated compounds for bioactivity (Tan et al.,
1991; Borris, 1996; Zgoda and Porter, 2001; Cos et al., 2006).
Despite the fact that some of these assays have standard protocols
and have been in use for decades, their results sometimes require
confirmation in more advanced and expensive assays. This may
account for reason why few studies have been carried out to
verify the activity of plant species identified to be having folk
uses. This attests to the fact that some of the so called inexpensive
assays may not be all that cheap especially in developing
countries. The few validation studies can as such be accounted
for by the fact that most of the plants abound in developing
countries and researchers in these countries often do not have
access to even basic research facilities. Apart from increasing
funding for basic research in developing countries, collaboration
between researchers in developing countries and their counterparts in developed countries should be encouraged.
4.3. Selection of compounds for further studies
4.5. Sample collection and preparation for screening
Of the 90 compounds isolated from Vernonia species and showing
bioactivity, 26 of the compounds demonstrated IC50 r10 mM. Going
by the industry standard, this will be considered to be promising
especially for those that were active at 1.0 mM level. These compounds such as Vernolide A that have demonstrated very good
activity in several drug discovery related assays are good candidates
for further preclinical studies. For compounds showing activity IC50
Z10 mg/ml, these could be considered as useful candidates for
activity optimization through structural modifications and also structure activity relationship (SAR) studies. In terms of in vivo studies, by
far more studies have been carried out using crude extracts than they
have been with pure compounds. It is unclear whether this trend is
indicative of the fact that researchers did not find the in vitro activity
of pure compounds worthy of further pursuit or it is due to the lack of
sufficient quantities of the pure compounds to be able to move to
in vivo studies; the later is more likely to be true exposing one of the
drawbacks in natural product drug discovery given the low yields
usually obtained for pure compounds.
Results presented in Table 7a and b on in vitro/in vivo bioactivity of plants reveals that the same plant species from different
origin can give different activity in the same assay. These variations can be attributed to various factors including but not limited
to environment, season, age of plant, part of plant, time of day
collected, post harvest handling, extraction solvent (Eloff, 1998)
and sensitivity of assay (Phillipson, 1995). Careful attention
should as such be paid during ethnomedicine surveys to ensure
all specific details on the collection process are not missed from
the informants.
4.2. Selection of species for further studies
4.6. Toxicity and safety studies
Despite the fact that the majority of plants used in ethnomedicine are considered to be safe, there is still great need to
formally evaluate the safety of medicinal plants. This is especially
important if the method of preparation differs from the folk
method such as using organic versus aqueous solvents. Since
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Table 8
Bioactive compounds that have so far been isolated from the Vernonia genus.
Compounds
Vernonia
species
Bioactivity
Reference
Infectious disease
Lutein (5)
Urticifolene (6)
Vernonione (12)
2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-(2-propenyl)-phenol (13)
Vanillic acid (14)
Methyl gallate (15)
isoferulic acid (16)
caffeic acid (17)
Uridine (18)
30 -methylquercetin (19)
Quercetin (20)
20 -epicycloisobrachycoumarinone epoxide (21)
urticifolia
urticifolia
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
cinerascens
brachycalyx
cycloisobrachycoumarinone epoxide (22)
brachycalyx
a-amyrin (23)
b-amyrin (24)
auriculifera
auriculifera
brassiliana
Antibacterial IC50 18–256 mg/ml
Antibacterial IC50 18–256 mg/ml
Urease inhibitor: IC50–227.6 mM
Antioxidant IC50 ¼85.05 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 Z 236 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼210.8 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 4 236 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼108.4 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 4 236 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼298.2 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 r59 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼600 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 r 59 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼439.2 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 4118 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼186.5 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 4236 mg/ml
Antioxidant IC50 ¼51.45 mg/ml; Antiurease IC50 4236 mg/ml
Antiplasmodial activity: IC50–0.11 mM Antileishmania activity:
IC50–37.1 mM
Antiplasmodial activity: IC50–0.11 mM Antileishmania activity:
IC50–39.2 mM
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.12–1.0 mg/ml
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.12–1.0 mg/ml
Plasmodium falciparum IC50 425 mg/ml
b-amyrin acetate (25)
Oleanolic acid (26)
Lupenyl acetate (27)
Lupeol (28)
auriculifera
auriculifera
auriculifera
brasiliana
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.5–1 mg/ml
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.12–1.0 mg/ml
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.12–1.0 mg/ml
Antiplasmodial IC45 ¼ 25 mg/ml
Friedelanone (29)
Friedelin acetate (30)
Vernoguinosterol (31)
Vernoguinoside (32)
Vernoguinoside A (33)
Vernonioside A3 (34)
Vernodalol (37)
brasiliana
brasiliana
guineensis
guineensis
guineensis
amygdalina
amygdalina
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.25–1.0 mg/ml
Antibacterial; MIC: 0.5–1.0 mg/ml
Antitrypanosomiasis; IC50:3–5 mg/ml
Antitrypanosomiasis; IC50: 3–5 mg/ml
Antifungal: MIC/MFC¼ 7.85 mg/ml
Antischistosomal 200 ppm
Antibacterial MIC ¼0.25–0.5 mg/ml Antifungal
LC50 ¼0.5 mg/ml
Kiplimo et al. (2011b)
Kiplimo et al. (2011b)
Ahmad et al. (2012)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Ahmad et al. (2011)
Oketch-Rabah et al.
(1997)
Oketch-Rabah et al.
(1997)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Ameida Alves et al.
(1997)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Ameida Alves et al.
(1997)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Kiplimo et al. (2011a)
Tchinda et al. (2002)
Tchinda et al. (2002)
Donfack et al. (2012)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Erasto et al. (2006),
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Kraft et al. (2003)
Kraft et al. (2003)
Lopes (1991)
Buskuhl et al. (2010)
Pillay et al. (2007)
11b,13-dihydrovernodalin (38)
Glaucolide B (43)
Hirsutinolide (48)
8a-(2-methylacryloyloxy)-3-oxo-1-desoxy-1,2dehydrohirsutinolide-13-O-acetate (49)
8a-(50-acetoxysenecioyloxy)-3-oxo-1-desoxy-1,2dehydrohirsutinolide-13-O-acetate (50)
Vernolepin (55)
Vernodalin (56)
amygdalina
colorata
eremophila
scorpioides
staehelinoides
Antischistosomal 200 ppm
Antiplasmodial; IC50 4.0–4.8 mg
Antiplasmodial; IC50 1.1–2.3 mg
Antibacterial
Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼0.2 mg/ml
Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼0.26 mg/m
staehelinoides Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼0.26 mg/ml
Pillay et al. (2007)
amygdalina
amygdalina
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Rabe et al. (2002)
Chukwujekwu et al.
(2009)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Erasto et al. (2006)
Antibacterial
Antibaceterial MIC ¼ 0.1–8.0 mg/ml
Antileishmania
colorata
Antischistosomal 200 ppm
Antibacterial: MIC 0.1–0.25 mg/ml
Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼0.52 mg/ml
Vernomenin (58)
4,15-dihydrovernodalin (60)
amygdalina
amygdalina
Antibacterial
Antibacterial
Vernolide (62)
amygdalina
Antibacterial MIC ¼ 0.25–0.5 mg/ml Antifungal
LC50 ¼0.2–0.4 mg/ml
Antileishmania
Vernolide D (65)
Hydroxyvernolide (67)
Zaluzanin D (68)
13-acetoxy-14hydroxy-8S*methacryloyloxy 1S*(
1OS*),4R*,5R*-diepoxygermacr-7( 11 )-.ene-6S*,
1 2-olide (87)
13-acetoxy-14-hydroxy-8S*isobutyroyloxy-1 S*( IOS* ),
4R*,5R* diepoxygermacr-7( 11)-ene6S*,12olide (88)
colorata
Antischistosomal 200 ppm
Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼1.87 mg/ml
cineria
colorata
amygdalina
Antiplasmodial IC50 ¼3.5 mM
Antibacterial: MIC ¼0.1–0.5 mg/ml
Antileishmania
arborea
fastigiata
Antischistosomal 200 ppm
Antifungal
Antibacterial (B. subtilis): MIC ¼5 mg/ml
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Chukwujekwu et al.
(2009)
Chea et al. (2006)
Rabe et al. (2002)
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Jisaka et al. (1992)
Kumari et al. (2003)
Roos et al. (1998)
fastigiata
Antibacterial (B. subtilis): MIC ¼5 mg/ml
Roos et al. (1998)
fastigiata
Antibacterial (B. subtilis): MIC ¼10 mg/ml
Roos et al. (1998)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
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63
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65
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Table 8 (continued )
Compounds
13-acetoxy-14-hydroxy-8S*-angeloyloxy-1S*(
10S*),4R*,5R*diep oxygermacr-7(11 )-ene-6St,12olid (89)
l3,l4diacetoxy8S*methacryloyloxy1 S*( 10S*), 4R*,5R*diepoxygermacr7( 11 )-ene-6S*,1 2-olide (90)
13-acetoxy-14-hydroxy-8S*methacryloy1oxy 1 S*( 10S),
2R*,3S*, 4R*,5R*triepoxyger-macr7(11) ene-6S*, 12olide (91)
Eremantholide B (92)
16,17-dihydrobrachycalyxolide (93)
Vernonia
species
Bioactivity
Reference
fastigiata
Antibacterial (B. subtilis): MIC ¼5 mg/ml
Roos et al. (1998)
fastigiata
Antibacterial (B. subtilis): MIC ¼5 mg/ml
Roos et al. (1998)
Antibacterial
Antiplasmodial activity: IC50 ¼ 5.9–32 mM Antileishmania activity:
IC50 ¼34 mM
Antibacterial: MIC 44 mg/ml
Lopes (1991)
Oketch-Rabah et al.
(1998)
Rabe et al. (2002)
Igile et al. (1994)
Koul et al. (2003)
triflosculosa
Antioxidant
Cytotoxicity IC50: HT-29 ¼6.5 mM; T47-D¼ 43.5 mM; HCT15¼ 109.79 mM; SiHa 497.4 mM
NK-kB (IC50-0.5 mg/ml) TNF-a (1C50-4.55 mg/ml)
Kos et al. (2006)
brachycalyx
11b,13-dihydroxyvernolide (98)
colorata
Cytotoxic/antitumor and immune modulatory effects
Luteolin (1)
Lasiopulide (39)
amygdalina
lasiopus
8a-(4-hydroxymethacryloyloxy)-10a-hydroxy-13methoxy-hirsutinolide (40)
8a-methacryloyloxy-10a-hydroxy-13methoxyhirsutinolide (41)
Glaucolide (42)
Glaucolide B (43)
‘‘
NK-kB (IC50-0.5 mg/ml) TNF-a (1C50-1.62 mg/ml)
scorpioides
eremophila
Glaucolide K (44)
Glaucolide L (45)
Glaucolide M (46)
Hirsutolide (47)
Hirsutinolide (48)
piptocarphin A (53)
pachyclada
pachyclada
pachyclada
bockiana
scorpioides
bockiana
piptocarphin F (54)
bockiana
Vernolepin (55)
amygdalina
Cytotoxic activity Hela cell-IC50 ¼2.1 mM
Clastogenic action 4 mg/ml in vitro
Cytotoxicity IC50 48 mg/ml
Clastogenic action in vivo 4640 mg/kg
Cytotoxic activity Human ovarian cancer (A2780) IC50 ¼ 5.8 mM
Human ovarian cancer (A2780) IC50 ¼ 24.5 mM
Human ovarian cancer (A2780) IC50 ¼ 3.3 mM
Anti tumor P388: IC50 0.73 mg/ml
Cytotoxic activity Hela Cell line IC50 ¼3.3 mM
P-388 tumor: 4.6 mg/kg; IC50: 0.77 mM
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 3.87 mM
P-388 tumor: IC50 1.32 mM
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 5.69 mM
Antiplatelet: Active at 10 mg/ml
hymenolepis
Vernodalin (56)
amygdalina
Vernomenin (58)
Vernodalinol (57)
amygdalina
amygdalina
hymenolepis
Epivernodalol (59)
amygdalina
lasiopus
4, 15-dihydrovernodalin (60)
amygdalina
Vernolide (62)
amygdalina
Vernolide A (63)
cineria
Vernolide B (64)
8a-tigloyloxyhirsutinolide-13-O-acetate (83)
Vernomygdin (66)
Hydroxyvernolide (67)
Vernobockolide B (69)
Vernchinilide A (70)
Vernchinilide B (71)
Vernchinilide E (72)
cineria
cineria
amygdalina
amygdalina
bockiana
chinensis
chinensis
chinensis
Kos et al. (2006)
Buskuhl et al. (2010)
Burim et al. (1999)
Burim et al. (1999)
Burim et al. (1999)
Williams et al. (2005)
Williams et al. (2005)
Williams et al. (2005)
Huo et al. (2008)
Buskuhl et al. (2010)
Huo et al. (2008)
Liao et al. (2012)
Huo et al. (2008)
Liao et al. (2012)
Laekeman et al.
(1985)
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.12 mg/ml
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Antitumor against Walker intramuscular carcinosarcoma 256 in rat Kupchan et al. (1968)
ED50 12.5 mg/kg
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.11 mg/ml
Jisaka et al. (1993),
Kupchan et al.
(1969a)
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.17 mg/ml
Jisaka et al., 1993
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 70–75 mg/ml
Luo et al. (2011a,
2011b)
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 20 mg/ml
Kupchan et al.
(1969b)
Antioxidant and chemopreventive: cytotoxicity GI50 ¼ 1.76 mg/ml
Farombi and Owoeye
(2011)
Cytotoxicity IC50: HT-29 ¼21.9 mM; T47-D ¼22.5 mM;
Koul et al. (2003)
HCT¼ 39.3 mM; SiHa ¼43.4 mM
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.07 mg/ml
Jisaka et al. (1993);
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.11 mg/ml
Jisaka et al. (1993),
Sayed et al. (1982)
Cytotoxic activity ED50 (lg/mL) KB¼ 0.02 DLD-1 ¼0.05 NCIKuo et al. (2003)
661 ¼0.53 Hela ¼0.04
Apoptosis 0.1 mg/ml
Pratheeshkumar and
Kuttan (2011b)
Immune response 500 mg/kg
Pratheeshkumar and
Kuttan (2011c
,2012a)
Antiangiogenesis In vitro IC50 ¼0.1 mg/ml; in vivo ¼ 500 mg/kg
Pratheeshkumar and
Kuttan (2011d)
Antimetastatic effect ¼500 mg/kg
Pratheeshkumar and
Kuttan (2012b)
Cytotoxic activity Ed50 (mg/mL) KB ¼3.78 NCI-661 ¼ 5.88 Hela ¼6.42 Kuo et al. (2003)
Cytotoxicity IC50: HT29-3.50 mM; HepG2-4.27 mM
Khay et al. (2012)
IC50-1.5 mg/ml
Kupchan et al. (1969)
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.19 mg/ml
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Cytotoxicity; P388 (IC50: 1.81 mM)
Huo et al. (2008)
Cytotoxicity; P388 (IC50: 4 mM)
Chen et al. (2005)
Cytotoxicity; P388 and A-549 (IC50: 0.51 and 2.7 mM)
Chen et al. (2005)
Cytotoxicity; P388 and A-549 (IC50: 0.23 and 3.1 mM)
Chen et al. (2005)
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
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9
10
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12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
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Table 8 (continued )
Compounds
Vernonia
species
Bioactivity
Reference
8b-(2-methylacryloyloxy)-hirsutinolide-13-O-acetate
(73)
8b-(2-hydroxymethyl-acryloyloxy)hirsutinolide 13-Oacetate (74)
8a-tigloyloxyhirsutinolide 13-O-acetate (75)
8a-(4-hydroxymethacryloyloxy)-10a-hydroxy-13methoxyhirsutinolide (76)
8a-methacryloyloxy-10a-hydroxy-13-Omethylhirsutinolide (77)
8a-[4-hydroxymethacryloyloxy]-10ahydroxyhisutinolide-13-O-acetate (78)
8a-acetoxy-10a-hydroxy-13-O-methylhirsutinolide (79)
Vernodalidimer A (94)
Vernodalidimer B (95)
1,2,20 ,30 -tetrahydrovernodalin (99)
1,2,11,13,20 ,30 -hexahydrovernodalin (100)
Vernopicrin (101)
chinensis
Cytotoxicity P388 and A-549 (IC50: 0.36 and 2.0 mM)
Chen et al. (2005)
chinensis
Cytotoxicity P388 and A-549 (IC50: 4.0 and 6.0 mM)
Chen et al. (2005)
chinensis
chinensis
Cytotoxicity; A-549 (IC50: 7.8 mM)
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 12.5 mM
Chen et al. (2005)
Chen et al. (2005)
chinensis
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 5.69 mM
Chen et al. (2005)
chinensis
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 5.69 mM
Chen et al. (2005)
chinensis
anthelmintica
anthelmintica
amygdalina
amygdalina
guineensis
Chen et al. (2005)
Liu et al. (2010)
Liu et al. (2010)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Jisaka et al. (1993)
Toyang et al. (2013a)
Vernomelitensin (102)
guineensi
2,3,4,30 ,40 -O-pentaisovalerylsucrose (103)
guineensi
HL-60: IC50 ¼ 5.96 mM
Cytotoxicity: HL-60- IC50 ¼ 0.72 mM
Cytotoxicity: HL-60- IC50 ¼ 0.47 mM
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.14 mg/ml
Cytotoxicity: IC50 ¼ 0.52 mg/ml
Cytotoxicity (MDA-MD-231; MCF-7; HCT—116; HL-60; A549; A375;
OVCAR3; Mia-Paca; DU-145; PC-3 1.00) IC50 ¼ 0.35 mM 2.04 mM
Cytotoxicity (MDA-MD-231; MCF-7; HCT—116; HL-60; A549; A375;
OVCAR3; Mia-Paca; DU-145; PC-3 1.00) IC50 ¼ 0.14 mM 1.56 mM
Cytotoxicity: PC-3, DU145, AT3B-1 (IC50: 5.7 mg/ml, 4.27 mg/ml,
5.76 mg/ml)
Musculoskeletal and joint disease
Luteolin (1)
cinerea
Antiinflammatory 97 2 mM
Methyl caffeate (2)
cinerea
257 2 mM
Luteolin 7-O-glucoside (3)
cinerea
107 2 mM
Luteolin 40 -O-glucoside (4)
cinerea
567 22 mM
3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (7)
cinerea
137 2 mM
Chlorogenic acid (8)
cinerea
137 1 mM
4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (9)
cinerea
177 3 mM
Gallic acid (10)
cinerea
307 2 mM
3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid (11)
cinerea
177 3 mM
Vernonioside B2 (36)
8a-(4-hydroxymethacryloyloxy)-10a-hydroxy-13methoxy-hirsutinolide (51)
8a-methacryloyloxy-10a-hydroxy-13methoxyhirsutinolide (52)
vernolide-A (63)
Vernolide-B (64)
8a-tigloyloxyhirsutinolide (80)
8a-hydroxyhirsutinolide (81)
8a-hydroxyl-1-O-methylhirsutinolide (82)
8a-tigloyloxyhirsutinolide-13-O-acetate (83)
8a-(2-methylacryloyloxy)-hirsutinolide-13-O-acetate
(84)
8a-(2-methylacryloyloxy)-1a-methoxyhirsutinolide-13O-acetate (85)
hirsutinolide-13-oacetate (86)
Vernocuminoside B (96)
condensata
triflosculosa
analgesic and antiinflammatory:50 mg/kg
Antiinflammatory effect (TNF-a and IL-8); NF-B 4.55 mM
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Abeysekera et al.
(1999)
Valverde et al. (2001)
Kos et al. (2006)
triflosculosa
Antiinflammatory effect (TNF-a and IL-8); NF-B 1.62 mM
Kos et al. (2006)
triflosculosa
triflosculosa
cineria
cineria
cineria
cineria
cineria
IC50:NO(2.4 mM); NF-kB(1.6 mM)
IC50:NO(1.2 mM); NF-kB(12.8 mM)
IC50:NO(5.7 mM); NF-kB(3.1 mM)
IC50:NO(24.7 mM); NF-kB(1.9 mM)
IC50:NO(28.1 mM); NF-kB( mM)
IC50:NO(20 mM); NF-kB(0.6 mM)
IC50:NO(6.6 mM); NF-kB(5.2 mM)
Youn
Youn
Youn
Youn
Youn
Youn
Youn
cineria
IC50:NO(1.5 mM); NF-kB(13.6 mM)
Youn et al. (2012)
cineria
cumingiana
IC50:NO(2.7 mM); NF-kB(10.2 mM)
Youn et al. (2012)
Antiinflammatory effect (inhibition of the platelet-activating factor) Liu et al. (2009)
50 mM
Endo and exo parasites
Vernonioside B1 (35)
amygdalina
Anthelmintic
Glaucolide B (43)
Vernodalin (56)
11,13-dihydrovernodalin (61)
Scorpioidine (97)
eremophila
amygdalina
amygdalina
scorpioides
Molluscide (adult Biomphalaria glabra): 100 ppm¼ 90% kill
Insecticide
Insecticide
Anthelmintic, larvicidal
chronic toxicity studies are more expensive to run, it is recommended that at least acute toxicity studies using appropriate invivo models be carried out once the medicinal properties of plants
have been confirmed in vitro.
Toyang et al. (2013a)
Toyang et al. (2012a)
et
et
et
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2012)
(2012)
(2012)
(2012)
(2012)
(2012)
(2012)
Huffman et al. (1993),
Koshimizu et al.
(1994)
Alarcon et al. (1990)
Ganjian et al. (1983)
Ganjian et al. (1983)
Drew et al. (1980)
4.7. Phytochemical, metabolomic analysis and quality issues
By comparison, more phytochemical studies have been carried
out on various species of the Vernonia genus than biological
Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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1
activity studies. Despite this, most of the species of Vernonia
2
that have been identified to be medicinal are yet to be phyto3
chemically analysed. For example, out of the 105 plants identified
4
to be used in folk medicine (Tables 3–5), only 23 plants have been
5
phytochemically studied and some of their bioactive metabolites
6
identified (Table 8). In phytochemical and metabolomic studies,
7
specific active or marker compounds can be identified and can be
8
useful for drug discovery as well as quality control of medicinal
9
plant products and differentiation of closely related species.
10
Phytochemical and metabolomic analysis are as such recom11
mended as one of the priority areas for future research in the
12
Vernonia genus. This effort would however require standardized
13
methods including extraction preparation due to differences in
14
origin of the species and other environmental factors.
15
In conclusion, this review reveals that the genus Vernonia is
16
endowed with many medicinal plants some of which have
17
potential for the discovery of new drugs. On the basis of results
18
from a combination of in vitro and in vivo efficacy and toxicity
19
studies reported, Vernonia amygdalina holds the most promise for
20
development into a nutraceutical against diabetes and malaria
21
while Vernonia cinerea has potential againt cancer and inflamma22
tory conditions. Vernolide A (63) is so far the most promising
23
single agent that could be developed into an anticancer agent out
24
of the 103 identified bioactive compounds from Vernonia species.
25
The other Vernonia species and isolated compounds require
26
further studies to validate or ascertain their medicinal potentials.
27
28
29 Q2 Uncited references
30
31
Adenuga et al. (2010), Anastasia (2011), Anibijuwon et al.
32
(2012), Asaolu et al. (2010), Ayare (2005), Ba et al. (2008), Barbosa
33
et al. (2004), Bardón et al. (1988), Batista et al. (2009), Cartagena
34
et al. (2008), Deng et al. (2002), Fennell et al. (2004), Freire et al.
35
(2002), Gokilaveni et al. (2006), Graham et al. (2003), Hua et al.
36
(2012), Igile et al. (1995), Iwalewa et al. (2007), Izevbigie et al.
37
(2008), Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa (2005), Kreuger
38
et al. (2012), Mali and Mehta (2008), Nergard et al. (2006), Owuor
39
and Kisangau (2006), Oyugi et al. (2009, 2011), Pande et al.
40
(2007), Phiri (2006), Rojas (2000), Rwangabo et al. (1986),
41
Stangeland et al. (2011), Yekeen et al. (2011), Yineger et al.
42
(2007), Yu et al. (2007a, 2007b), Yuan et al. (2011).
43
44
References
45
46
Abegaz, B.M., Keige, A.W., Diaz, J.D., Herz, W., 1994. Sesquiterpene lactones and
47
other constituents of Vernonia species from Ethiopia. Phytochemistry 37,
48
191–196.
49
Abeysekera, A.M., De, S.K.T.D., De, S.S.R.P., Sirimanne, V.D.P., Labadie, R.P., Van,
50
d.B.A.J.J., Vander, S.W., 1999. Inhibition of chemiluminescence generated by
zymosan-activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes by phenolic constituents of
51
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52
Abosi, A.O., Raseroka, B.H., 2003. In vivo antimalarial activity of Vernonia amygda53
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Achel, D.G., Mills, R., Otchere, J., Seyram, E., Achoribo, E., Adu-Bobi, N.A.-K., Donkor,
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Achola, K.J., Mwangi, J.W., Munenge, R.W., Mwaura, A.M., 1996. Pharmacological
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activities of Vernonia glabra. Pharmaceutical Biology 34, 141–144.
59
Adaramoye, O.A., Akintayo, O., Achem, J., Fafunso, M.A., 2008a. Lipid-lowering
effects of methanolic extract of Vernonia amygdalina leaves in rats fed on high
60
cholesterol diet. Vascular Health Risk Management 4, 235–241.
61
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Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
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Please cite this article as: Toyang, N.J., Verpoorte, R.. review of the medicinal potentials of plants of the genus Vernonia (Asteraceae).
Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.040i
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Ngeh Toyang