Verma et al. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-020-00132-z
(2020) 6:114
Future Journal of
Pharmaceutical Sciences
REVIEW
Open Access
Traditional, phytochemical, and biological
aspects of Rosa alba L.: a systematic review
Anju Verma1* , Rajni Srivastava1 , Pankaj Kumar Sonar2
and Ramprakash Yadav3
Abstract
Background: Rosa alba L. belongs to the family Rosaceae. This species is widely cultivated in Europe, Asia, North
America, and Northwest Africa due to its fragrance, ornamental, and medicinal values. It is commonly known as
white oil-bearing rose, white rose, white rose of York, backyard rose, and sufaid gulab.
Main text: Rosa alba L. has many biological properties like antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, antifertility,
teratogenic, memory enhancing, cytotoxic, and genotoxic activities. The essential oil of Rosa alba L. possesses good
antimicrobial activity and consists of many chemical constituents like- citronellol, geraniol, nerol, linalool, citral,
carvacrol, eugenol, etc.
Conclusion: This article briefly reviews the cultivation, traditional uses, phytochemistry, and biological activities of
Rosa alba L. Many research papers have been published on the proposed plant and still, there is a very vast scope
of research on it. Therefore, this review will be very fruitful for those scientists who are doing or plan to do research
work on this plant. All the scientific findings written in this review are explored from Google web, Google Scholar,
PubMed, ScienceDirect, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Abstracts (MAPA), and SciFinder. To date, it is the first
systematic review article of such kind, on this plant.
Keywords: Rosaceae, Rosa alba L., White rose of York, Backyard rose, Sufaid gulab, Citronellol, Geraniol
Background
Rosa alba L. is a perennial flower shrub of the genus
Rosa and family Rosaceae comprises 95 genera and 3000
species across the world. This species easily hybridize
from different parts of the world which have given rise
to the many cultivars of garden roses. Moreover, 435
taxa, 308 species, 13 subspecies, 28 varieties, 17 forms,
and 71 natural hybrids have been recognized in Rosa.
This is one of the largest and most important aromatic
and medicinal genera of this family, vital in folk medicine, pharmacological, and commercial value due to its
essential oils and volatile products. Most of its species
are native to Asia, Europe, North America, and Northwest Africa. While Rosa alba L. is found in the central* Correspondence: rinki.anju1983@gmail.com; rinki_anju@yahoo.co.in
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Sam
Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj,
Uttar Pradesh 211007, India
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
west region in the state of Goiás, Brazil and some areas
of Turkey, popularly known as white rose or yard rose
or backyard rose or white rose of York or Sufaid gulab
[1–5]. Various groups of compounds like flavonoids,
anthraquinones, saponins, tannins, monoterpenes, triterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, phenolic/alcoholic
compounds, and minerals are reported in this species
[6–10]. Symptoms of little leaf disease, i.e., yellowing
and shortening of internodes, were observed in the Rosa
alba L. due to the association of Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris-related strain which is firstly reported by
Chaturvedi et al. in 2009 [11].
Main text
Plant description and taxonomy [1]
Kingdom:Plantae
Division:Magnoliophyta
Class:Magnoliopsida
Order:Rosales
© The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
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Verma et al. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
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Family:Rosaceae
Genus:Rosa
Species:Rosa alba L.
Rosa alba L. or rosebush is a little-large tree or shrubs
up to 1.8 m in height with perfect velvety white roses of
pleasant smell, therefore attracting insect pollination. Its
branches are wide apart, big, bent downwards, and have
thorns. It can grow in cold and unsuitable soils. The
leaves are simple, palminer shaped with reserved trichomes, reticulated ribs, and small side lances. The central rib is elevated and fishbone. Flowers are usually in
the form of large clusters as a rosette with 3 or more
flowers that bloom throughout the year. Then, 5–70 but
generally 15–40 in numbers of pure white-colored petals
form the corolla in an overlapping manner. Stigma is
not apparent; therefore, the carpel is not developed. The
androecium has short stamens with poorly formed anthers. Sepals are round and mostly seesaw teethed [1,
12]. University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
(UAAR) reported the pollen morphology of the flower
as the length of pollen 20μ, breadth 10μ, size 20 × 10μ,
and shape of pollen is elliptical. UAAR has also reported
the 95 % fertility of pollen [13].
Cultivation
The first white rose was cultivated by Greeks and
Romans [1]. In the last century, Rosa alba L. had been
cultivated in small areas of Europe, primarily the Rose
Valley of Bulgaria [14, 15]. Plantings are located in the
areas on the Ridge of Sredna Gora Mountain and presently in the region of sub-Balkan valleys. Due to the low
quantity of essential oil in white roses, the lands used for
its farming decreased noticeably throughout the last century [16]. Essential oil content in the petal has increased
by 13% to 33% after the application of pulsed electric
fields (PEF) with an energy input of 10 kJ/kg on fresh
rose blossoms. The PEF effect on the petals was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and found
the increment of yield. The chemical composition on the
treatment of 10 kJ/kg was optimal in regards to the quality of the product [17]. The maximum oil content in the
white rose of Bulgaria was found to be at 12 o'clock
(0.216%) and the potential to synthesize a high percentage of terpene alcohols up to 43.97% [18].
Traditional use
Generally, the leaves, root, flowers, and fruits are useful
parts of Rosa alba L. The leaves are considered as rubefacient, lactagogue, and also have insecticidal properties.
The leaf juice is used as external application for the
treatment of piles. A decoction of leaves and roots is
useful in the treatment of diarrhea. Yellow oil of the root
is reported for strong anthelmintic action [19]. Rosa alba
L. is cultivated mainly for the production of aromatic
water while fruits are used in the production of food
preparations and sold commercially. In Tunisia, aromatic water is made from Rosa x alba (Nesri) called
Nesri water, which is commonly used as a flavoring
agent in the preparation of jam, marmalade, cake, and
drinks. Hydrodistillate product of the flowers is used
to prevent cardiovascular diseases [9]. The hydrosol
obtained from the flowers is used as an antioxidant
supplement for the treatment of oxidative stress etiology [20]. All fragrance products obtained from the
plant are used in aromatherapy, phytotherapy, perfumery, and cosmetics. Rosa alba L. is traditionally
used as tea for the treatment of eye troubles, vaginal
candidiasis, and laxative [1]. Rose oil is also used in
the preparation of various skin creams/ointment as
fragrance or perfuming agent [21].
Quality control studies
Swelling index
The swelling index is defined as the volume in milliliter
which is produced up by the swelling of 1 g of plant
material on the particular sets of conditions. It gives an
idea about the mucilage content of the drug; therefore, it
is useful in the evaluation of those crude drugs which
contain mucilage [22]. The swelling (intumescent) index
of the petal and leaf powder has been determined and
their average values are reported in Table 1. Results revealed that the presence of significant amount of mucilage in the leaf. In the pharmaceutical industry, the plant
mucilages are used as excipients like thickeners, binding
agents, emulsion stabilizers, disintegrating agents,
suspending agents, gelling agents, and film formers for
the preparation of various dosage forms. Therapeutically,
it is utilized as antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer,
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, wound
healing agent, etc. [23].
Moisture and ash contents
Moisture and total ash contents of the petals and leaves
of the Rosa alba L. is reported by Fabio da Silva et al.,
which is represented in Table 1.
Microscopic analysis
Microscopic details of the leaf and stem of Rosa alba L.
have been reported by Fabio da Silva Santos et al.
(2014). Palisade and lacunous parenchyma are observed
in the cross-section of leaves. Palisade parenchyma was
observed with two layers of cells occupying about onethird of the mesophyll while lacunous parenchyma
occupying about two-thirds of the mesophyll. Both
epidermises of the leaf are uniseriate with unicellular
trichomes (hairs) and stomata. Thus the leaf is amphistomatic type. Druses (crystals) were found in the crosssection of the stem and observed intense brighten in
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Table 1 Swelling index, moisture and total ash contents of the powder of petals and leaves of Rosa alba L
Sample
Ash content (%)
Rosa alba L.
Petal
Leaf
Moisture content (%)
Petal
Leaf
Petal
Leaf
5.22
9.23
4.45
4.71
4.4
11.7
polarized light. According to Ferri et al. (2003), druse is
the set of incomplete crystallized crystals around a common nucleus [24].
Phytochemical profile
Qualitative tests of the leaves and petals of Rosa alba L.
have been performed for the detection of secondary metabolites [1]. Results of the tests showed positive test
for flavonoid in the leaves and petals that are indicating
the presence of a considerable amount of these compounds in this species while tests of phenolic compounds and anthraquinone showed positive in leaves
only. According to Simões et al. (2007), phenolic compounds are generally constituents of volatile oils. It is believed that when preparing the alcoholic extract of the
petals, their phenolic elements are destroyed that is why
the result of phenolic compounds in the test comes
negative. Saponins were also absent in both leaves and
petals while tannins have been found in the petals only
[6].
Chemical constituents and other characteristics
Various chemical constituents reported in the leaves,
flowers, and fruits of Rosa alba L. are structurally represented in the Fig. 1. Out of them, the essential oil was
found as chief constituent. The major components of
the essential oil are geraniol, heneicosane, nonadecane,
citronellol, linalool, β phenylethyl alcohol, nerol, neral,
geranial, eugenol, methyleugenol, nonadecene, eicosane,
and tricosane [7]. Mileva et al. also reported the quantitative information of citronellol, n-nonadecane, n-heneicosane, geraniol, nerol, citral, and eugenol in the
essential oil, with the help of gas chromatography (GC)
[8]. The abundance of some components like α, βunsaturated aldehydes, and alcohols such as eugenol and
linalool are reported in the leaves and 2-phenylethanol
in flowers with well-documented biological properties. It
is reported that the volatile oil obtained from leaves, applicable in the food industry, while oil obtained from
flowers seems more appropriate in the cosmetic and perfume industries. The leaves, flowers, and fruits of the
plant are rich sources of essential minerals. Therefore,
leaves and flowers can be consumed as a salad and/or
decoction, while fruits can be eaten fresh as a dessert or
processed to jam. In another study, tannins, ellagitannins, and flavonoids were reported in petals while mucilage and anthraquinones in the leaves [10]. The
Swelling index
quantitative analysis of the volatile oils from leaf, flower,
and fruits of Rosa x alba is represented in the Fig. 2 [9].
Georgieva et al. (2019) performed gas chromatographymass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis of hydrosol, which
was produced by water-steam distillations of rose
blossoms. They reported various monoterpene hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, oxygenated aliphatic
hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, oxygenated
sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, and benzenoid compounds
in that hydrosol. Out of them, trans-Geraniol and βCitronellol were found 36.44% and 28.69% respectively.
All the explored compounds and their quantities are
represented in the Fig. 3. Geraniol, nerol, citronellol, and
citral are the constituents of the essential oil, responsible
for the antioxidants and antimicrobial effects. Pure geraniol and citronellol are better antimicrobial agents than
rose hydrosol. In the plant, biogenesis of geraniol and
citronellol occurs through the mevalonic acid pathway
[20, 25]. Significant changes in the content and composition of essential oil of Rosa alba L. were observed when
it was investigated at various stages of its flowers development. Flowers from the population of white rose were
investigated in six phases. The optimum quantity and
quality of the essential oil was not found same at one
time, but there was a correlation between the two indicators. The maximum content of essential oil was observed in the phase IV at the time of semi-opened
petals. Authors have examined the content of flavonoids
(such as quercetin) in the flowers at the different phases
of its development. They found that the basic content of
flavonoids is 11 mg/g and reported that with the opening of the flowers, the content of flavonoids is increases
and reaches up to the maximum amount (18 mg/g)
when flowers are fully open [26].
Biological activities
Antioxidant activity
A comparative antioxidant effect of hydrosols, prepared
from the flowers of Rosa alba L. and Rosa demesana
Mill., was evaluated and showed good capacity to inhibit
Fe2+/ascorbic acid-induced lipid peroxidation in the egg
liposomal model system. The antioxidant effect of hydrosol of Rosa alba L. was found higher than those of
Rosa damascena Mill. at all tested concentrations. On
the basis of above findings, it is concluded that Rosa
alba L. could be used as supplementary material with
antioxidants in oxidative stress condition [20]. Piotr
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Fig. 1 Chemical structures of some compounds reported in Rosa alba L
Brzezinski and Lorenzo Martini (2019) have reported in
their letter to the editor that the antiradical capacity of Rosa
alba L. is 72 μg/ml at the concentrations of 100 μg/ml.
They have also written in their letter about the usefulness of rose in the treatment of severe rosacea (rosacea
is a long-term skin condition that typically affects the
face characterized by redness, pimples, swelling, small
and superficial dilated blood vessels often the nose,
cheeks, forehead, and chin). The principle of DPPH (2,
2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assay is based on hydrogen
atom transfer reaction and substrate polarity. Therefore, the presence of hydroxyl group in the geraniol, nerol, and citronellol may be an option for the hydrogen
donation and/or superoxide scavenging activity [7].
Rubero and Barata (1999) have demonstrated that the
free radical scavenging activity is the cumulative effect
of essential oil’s ingredients (nerol, eugenol, geranol)
due to their polar bonded hydrogen atoms [27].
Antimicrobial activity
Antimicrobial effect of essential oil obtained from Rosa
alba L. was evaluated against Gram-positive bacterial
strains, belonging to genera Staphylococcus and Bacillus;
Gram-negative bacterial strains, belonging to genera
Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, and Citrobacter;
and some yeasts, belonging to genera Candida. Results
of the study revealed that the Gram-positive bacteria
were found to be more sensitive than Gram-negative
bacteria, especially Pseudomonas spp. were found to be
more resistant to the essential oil and pure components.
The pure citronellol, geraniol, and nerol have demonstrated higher antimicrobial activity than the isolated
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Fig. 2 Composition of the volatile oil (% peak area) of Rosa x alba leaves, flowers and fruits
one [7]. Rosa alba L. also showed significant antimicrobial effect against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
coli, and Candida albicans [28]. In another study, six essential oils of the Rosa genus and their ingredients were
evaluated for their antifungal activity against Aspergillus
flavus and Aspergillus niger. Findings of the study
showed larger resistance of Aspergillus niger against rose
oil in contrast to Aspergillus flavus. Antifungal activity of
the essential oil is mainly due to the presence of its
geraniol, nerol, and citronellol. Some more antimicrobial screening studies revealed that the rose oil found
to be less effective against Gram-positive Enterococcus
faecalis as compare to Streptococcus mutans and most
effective against Gram-negative Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans [8]. The lipophilic character of
monoterpenes present in essential oils may be responsible for antimicrobial effect by disrupting the permeability of microbial cytoplasmic membrane for
protons and bigger ions [16, 29, 30].
Antifertility and teratogenic activity
Leaf powder of Rosa alba L. has mixed with an equal
quantity of gum-acacia and double distilled water for preparing the dose of 175 mg/kg. This dose was administered
in albino rats orally once a day for 10 days in post-mating
period for the evaluation of its antifertility effects. Results
of the study depicted the fertility control levels up to 19%.
Marked malformations have been observed in newborns
in cases where the pregnancy was not terminated [31].
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Fig. 3 GC-MS analysis of the hydrosols of Rosa alba L
Cytotoxic and genotoxic activity
Jovtchev et al. have evaluated the cytotoxic and genotoxic
activity of Rosa alba L. through classical cytogenetic
methods and comet assay. They used 1-methyl-3-nitro-1nitrosoguanidine as a standard mutagen. The essential oil
was found to be inactive up to 1000 mg/ml on root tip
meristem cells isolated from Hordeum vulgare [32]. Generally, essential oils and their components are safe in low concentrations while several researchers have reported that the
higher dose (500 mg/ml) of geranial (citral A) and geraniol
are responsible for cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in human cells [33, 34]. Geraniol inhibits prostate cancer growth
by targeting cell cycle and apoptosis pathways [35].
Memory-enhancing activity
The memory-enhancing activity of the aqueous extract
of Rosa alba L. was evaluated on three-month-old male
Swiss albino mice. Elevated plus-maze and passiveavoidance apparatus served as the exteroceptive behavioral models and diazepam-induced amnesia served as
the interoceptive behavioral model in the study. Mice
were treated with 100, 200 mg/kg p.o. doses of Rosa
alba L. and 200 mg/kg i.p. dose of piracetam as a standard nootropic agent. The results of the study showed
that Rosa alba L. enhanced learning and memory in animals, as announced by transfer-latency and improved
step-down latency. On the other hand, Rosa alba L. significantly reversed diazepam-induced amnesia. The plant
has also improved memory power by inhibiting the enzyme cholinesterase. The nootropic activity of Rosa alba
L. extracts may be due to the improvement of memory
in the absence of cognitive deficits [36, 37].
Stress-induced skin-barrier disruption
Essential oil of Rosa alba L. has been evaluated against
two major stress-induced effects like activation of the
hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis and
skin-barrier disruption in the rats and humans. It is
stated that the inhalational treatment of rose oil significantly controlled the plasma corticosterone and the
number of c-Fos-positive cells in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Rose oil also maintains the skinbarrier disruption in both rats and humans. It also increases the salivary concentration of cortisol in humans
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by controlling the elevation of transepidermal water loss
[38]. Pharmacology underlying the suppressive effects of
rose essential oil on the HPA axis and TEWL (transepidermal water loss) is not known but two possibilities are
there. The first one is that the absorbed perfume component of rose essential oil via membrane of the nose or
lungs triggers a certain reaction in the brain and/or skin,
with consequent reductions of stress-induced HPA activation and skin-barrier disruption. The second possibility is
that upon inhalation of oil, the olfactory nerves may be activated which directs to inhibition of the activities of
stress-related forebrain regions, such as hypothalamic
paraventricular nucleus (PVN) [39].
Bradykinin and substance P antagonist
Breton et al. (2000 and 2003) obtained United States
Patents for inventions of novel substance P and bradykinin antagonist compositions comprising at least one extract of at least one plant of the rosaceae family. Rosa
alba L. was also one of the plants in their composition
as substance P and bradykinin antagonists. These inventions also narrate to the administration of Rosa alba L
extract as the active species or agent for treating disorders associated with an excessive synthesis and/or release of substance P and bradykinin [40, 41].
Conclusion
Rosa alba L. belongs to the family Rosaceae. Leaves,
root, flowers, and fruits are useful parts of this ornamental
plant with a variety of traditional values, as a tea for the
treatment of eye troubles, vaginal candidiasis, and as laxative. It is used in the production of aromatic water, food
preparations, as a flavoring agent for drinks, production of
jam, marmalade, and cake. All fragrance products obtained from this plant are used in aromatherapy, phytotherapy, perfumery, and cosmetics. This holds a variety
of biological activities like-antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifertility, teratogenic, cytotoxic, genotoxic, memoryenhancing, antistress, bradykinin, and substance P antagonist activities. Various chemical components are identified/isolated from different parts of the plant like essential
oil, alcohols, aldehydes, monoterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene, minerals, etc. This plant is not too much explored in pharmacological aspects yet the authors have
made their full effort to compile the entire pharmacology
published earlier on this plant. The plant contains a wide
range of natural antioxidants like flavonoids, terpenoids,
phenolic compounds, etc. which can neutralize the free
radicals and thus prevent the development of many
chronic diseases/disorders related with oxidative stress
and reactive oxygen species (ROS) like neurodegenerative
disorders, cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hepatic
disorders, and diseases associated with aging. Though,
phytochemical studies of the plant have been done
enough. Herbal formulation and development part of the
plant must also be explored in the future. Biological
standardization of the isolated compounds and their synthesis in the laboratory should also be explored as potential drug candidates.
Abbreviations
UAAR: University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; PEF: Pulsed electric
fields; SEM: Scanning electron microscopy; GC: Gas chromatography; GCMS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; DPPH: 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; HPA: Hypothalamo–pituitary–drenocortical; ROS: Reactive oxygen
species; PVN: Paraventricular nucleus; MAPA: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Abstracts; ACE: Angiotensin-converting enzyme; p.o.: Per oral;
i.p.: Intraperitoneal; TEWL: Transepidermal water loss
Acknowledgements
This review paper is supported by Sam Higginbottom University of
Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Authors’ contributions
All authors have studied and permitted the final manuscript for
communication. AV created the idea, conducted the literature searches and
wrote the manuscript. RS worked together with the correction and
regulation of text and references. PKS equally contributed as AV, in the data
analysis and organizing the manuscript in the proper format. RY collaborated
with the correction, updating, and regulation of references. The authors read
and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
All data and material are available upon request.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
No competing interests to declare.
Author details
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Sam
Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj,
Uttar Pradesh 211007, India. 2Government Pharmacy College, B.R.D. Medical
College Campus, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh 273013, India. 3Central Animal
House, B.R.D. Medical College, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh 273013, India.
Received: 29 July 2020 Accepted: 21 October 2020
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