Botany in A Day - The Patterns - Elpel, Thomas J

ANEThe Patterns
ALE Method
LUAof
0¢ Plant Identification
"os Thomas J. Elpel
PLANT Famities oF Nort America

Quick Guide to Flower Terms Botany inaDay
Words in bold are used frequently throughout this text. The Patterns Method of Plant Identification
This page may be photocopied for classroom use.
Pistil weg www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com
igma
~———After fertilization, the ovule

develops into a seed,
“Ae
thy,
Snore——— Tip: To remember which is male and

which is female, keep
° ’ that the
in mind
3 anther
filam na stamens always “stay men.
Petals/corolla (The corolla is the sum of all petals).

Sepals/calyx (The calyx is the sum of all sepals).
The perianth is the calyx and corolla together.
A complete flower has sepals, petals, stamens and a pistil.

An incomplete flower lacks one or more of the above.
Bisexual flowers have both male and female parts.

Plants with unisexual flowers have male and female flowers appearing either
separately on the same plant (monoecious) or on separate plants (dioecious).
Sepals, petals, and stamens are attached below a superior ovary.
(Also described as hypogynous. )
Sepals, petals, and stamens are attached above an inferior ovary.
(Also described as epigynous. )
lf the parts are attached in the middle of the ovary, the flower is perigynous.
= The word numerous is often used where there are more than 10 parts in a set,
cy example, numerous stamens.
1. sepals/calyx 3. stamens—male
2. petals/corolla 4. pistil(s)—female
th In a regular flower, the individual parts of a set are all identical in size,
shape, and color. For example, the petals are all the same.
In an irregular flower, some of the individual parts of a set are different.
regular flower For example the petals may be different sizes.
Progressive Fusion of the Pistils

Making sense of carpels, chambers, and partition walls.
A simple pistil has a single-chambered ovary called a carpel. Plants with primitive traits, like
___-— this larkspur, typically have multiple simple pistils (apocarpous), often in a cone-like form. Tip:
try associating “carpel” with “carport,” like a docking station where the ovules (egg cells) are
parked.
Evolution has led to fusion of the parts so that most plants today have one compound pistil
consisting of several united carpels, also called syncarpous. A compound pistil consisting of
Co) pa carpels is bicarpellate, while a pistil of three carpels is tricarpellate. In this illustration, the
partition walls are present, making a three-chambered ovary.
Further fusion of the carpels may eliminate the partition walls, leading to a compound pistil
that has only one chamber (also Known as a locule). In this picture, the ovules are attached
a in three points, indicating that it is composed of three carpels.
The styles and stigmas of the pistil reveal hints about the inside of ne It
ovary. As shown here, a pistil with three separate styles indicates that the
ovary consists of three united carpels. If the styles are fused together, too,
then look at the stigmas. The four-parted stigma shown here suggests that
‘ there are four carpels in the ovary. Read more on page 18.
ECEIVE
|, SEP ~~ 2018
BOTANY IN A DAYu«
The Patterns Method of Plant Identification
An Herbal Field Guide to Plant Families of North America
6th Edition
i “ste
«$ €
*& ‘ A $ 2 ®
Bi @y
Dedicated to Dad —
Thank you for showing me
my first edible wild plants.
HOPS Press, LLC

12 Quartz Street
Pony, Montana 59747-0697
clasping pepperweed
Lepidium perfoliatum | www-hopspress.com
Mustard Family / | \ www. wild flowers-and-weeds.com /
Botany in a Day “"°
An Herbal Field Guide to Plant Families of North America
Copyright: 1st Edition. Comb bound. 1996. 25 copies printed.

Revised & Expanded 2nd Edition. Comb bound. 1997. 500 copies printed.
Revised & Expanded 3rd Edition. First paperback edition. 1998. 2,000 copies printed.
Revised & Expanded 4th Edition. 2000, 2001. 12,500 copies printed.
Revised & Expanded 5th Edition. Expanded tutorial. 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012. 42,500 copies printed.
Revised & Expanded 6th Edition. APG + Color. May 2013.
ISBN: 978-1-892784-35-3
Help refine this book! Please e-mail your suggested additions, corrections, and comments to us via the current ad-
dress posted on our web site at www.hopspress.com. I will do my best to incorporate your input into future editions.
Permissions Note: There are several pages in the book that may be freely copied for classroom or personal use, and
they are marked as such. Please do not copy any other pages. | have worked very hard to bring you this text. If you need
multiple copies, please inquire about our generous wholesale discounts through HOPS Press at www.hopspress.com.
About the Artwork: Most illustrations in this book were adapted from public domain sources listed in the bibliog-
raphy. A few were drawn by the author. All edits, revisions, and arrangements of public domain images by the author
are subject to copyright law. Please inquire before you use. Thanks!
Legal Note: There is a big difference between knowing the properties of plants and knowing how to apply them to
the body. This guide is intended for the identification of plants and their properties only. It is not a field guide to
the human body or how to prescribe or prepare herbal medicines. The author is not responsible for your accidents.
Also keep in mind that every plant book has errors, and every person who uses a plant book makes errors. It is very
important that you crosscheck the identification and the uses of these plants with other sources.
Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Elpel, Thomas J. 1967-
Botany in a Day 4’¢: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification / Thomas J. Elpel. —6th ed.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN: 978-1-892784-35-3 $30.00 Pbk. (alk. paper)
1. Plants—Identification. 2. Botany—North America. 3. Medicinal Plants. 4. Edible Plants.
I. Elpel, Thomas J. II. Title.
QK110.E46 2000 581.023 99-068343
OY Botany in a Day is printed in the USA HOPS Press, LLC

® with soy-based inks on recycled paper 12 Quartz Street
t with 100% post-consumer waste. Pony, MT 59747-0697
Gy www.hopspress.com
Remember to recycle your papers! www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com
Table of Contents
Foreword: Path of Discovery SeurnuaQess, SUuMarMce ¢StaaseRs vhs wuapaosaaerdadth saga stenssay sx qaunaeeate tney tercod cin yasicr eat y eee i
USS Tel 207 ss Be ee eR 0 Ree, PERE MAE ORME MAN Ig Tae ar aM eR RI BT te il
; Part I—Botany in a Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification
Bory: ina Days Tutorial: How to Proceed ss iactersayilos euch o I2 Al all she Doce SRN se eee 1
Perse atnes andi Lassification ...3.c.csccanneltesket Side; asses Tacciastinbssts gsup WEL © ALES aE Mae ee aN eee 2
POMC TNOL Wathigen tc.2.ire agente ieee ee ertsas scant lve eventy stoi ov ny Sp htge cba Sete Tae ee 5
ae arcle WWtthowwt all thie Pieces oes tg. cisesc ecesess cv wed catyisii seach andes Grain Risbag ak ncavdnegeuss sPIeMbUna nD aa te eee ae 5
HPSS nti G05 aces sos acaciaseg tte ay kale sana hee SoAtaLeeva enact hfe Re UNA, S ci eae Age ee 6
(DRS REYeVGhdSs2k CR ey eee acca eee es sah oe Pee a en dgailaalddue va shh sdsclss Eady a Jaa oc logy necan ace eeeare ae 8
Spore Plants without & Vascular Systirtts. sac, secs-se:hy sxcterteasodscsouterspuensn chess seusacuect qeapeeea lochs eee ates ee eee 8
Spore Plants awith.a Vascular Sy stern. sacz.cis.:0057-cyeu sins ts senneateoces cedh -dnnduaanstandecey sca, erie ee 9
INAREC SCGAS. cs cncshae orp cnet corconstewsaceartuerseciscte setae Uaioegtogthsereestacrnhegiaseckt cesate ioe ehiesen aie kee 10
PLOW EriN GePEATIES LT) sccbsn cance. eustedeo secre.scnscuystrcece tes aveseattdtaphod coeas tos tua toehy AERO en ee oe 11
MonocatssDicors amd -Euidic@ts 02i0Zi.c..c ice, cuss hscditecedansccestnelhduscbscthvsesetay «Moneeeucun oth epa RC RRO 15
Specialifed! Flower si ocscilccceameisck sad. wa. cera ads decease beans det a dcReoeO Lada SRG OR. CII ae Wi
Composite Flowers: Aster Parmthy 2. .2:..:c.cseseseconsvoue otentuesssues een Veusuetreretyiclsectessectece anette ea ee 17
Meaenine Plants by Patties 2.2.35: Avsd tobecsiaintscecaps cess seeessase cuaagsbyeecotbanassbessh tes deuileice saben ee Ue eee ae nae eR 19
EN CINS IML AMONIOMIC PALACISES 05.3 chan bts hc secddsc Sach an Tae RUE. LLL nae seca eet olds etc eee Oe tree 22
Flonmsuat Use thre! Keys. scci2u.i atacand ee de, ae ete Ps ee 2 eee re 23
Profile Your Flower.............-. ET PN EE ME Re en ee ee we, POY MIN BO AL Aho) can Gace nee saySes 24
Key to. Regular Dicot Flowers-with Numerous Petals. 0.0.6 scerescassnc tin nunanysandeveshsate ceyeoncd tap sieren ger copaterty ie ieee een 25
ey to Irreoular Dict FLOWERS 5...ccs:eesneweseinesorshess ip nidet ans odesen ncvrsasdineseave sgticecou neenaeg¥ cds tcnonda cae enti: eee ee 26
Key to. Resular Dicot Flowers with 0,.3 or 'G Petals... icc. <c.sttstusasesacescconsegnashtinne Nacedsedosbacneannossanseussayee eerie tae ea ree OM
Key to‘Resulor Dieot Plowers with: 4 Petals <..ass.cdesosnecaocspetvgesduperdunarirscovoosts aspafinobanesagan apecsasgnetdsap aretanen ademenae!GeeRlO
Key to Regular’ Dicot Flowers with S United Petals 2.0.2. sssc-is.ccesessonesescchosssoanes tansialuesaceteu emo eetin on8ststs:2ceneane eae 29
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 5 Separate Petals............... Siaboondesiousattonciganyac'cs ects iMtemneeeyee gta eae Ohi beGodt eee ce 30
Key4o Dicot Trees ‘and Shrabs by Their’ Fruits os... 05.0. csccs cases sedesteah enasennsaspihusanqeetege dittytateeatnnes mepeets ate sr) eee tae a2
Key to Mopoeot Flowers ie. 5 iis lasek askew ost i a odessa ade acentul vane sg Dugg oa osama meme Ue oer ease Ieee 34
Part II—Reference Guide: An Herbal Field Guide to Plant Families
RM eabstrr0s6 Clade. ooo sedisciciicncss es cts cn sn omc Pia 80 By casdess Hees snk o na econpntss ceshivenn ae cists age AM eeTee ieeetein a tee eee ee Ee 38
BernnG lad ere secnccaeks Mecscadesss ets Bes ob on dba eceses te RE ae toe eektan ace e va node son atlviccns Dees HERON APR SRC OA th cee ee eee a ce 40
Walco Seed: Clade aoa 5ccesnnzdeceaee <tc Matsa. vadpeginton Seededsuakte Pad ewe BOGs Bre cvaesns atte Manas emebedieecenebvaty bus geteecia eae Ocean g Merges s2s 30ee 46
Blowertng Planes Claes. xg cerert ches ce. o0l sts tapes fan ioannen Our tttintea eth cvetanadidlscoeensnetoesae}ensassveyesseds ohn gtsshiesalee eumNeReETHie<tsosatsSs 50
Waret Mailys@ lader aie: Singeees tots sect gs wav litesnosebsann ones atomed theeteneyvegp Seatacgetrs Oe Rein fst cores wan geet ea ae aio acet teeny 50
IMac nollie Clade. 0i5ic25 0c. sins parsed pesstiocuad sone dvs endbon ateng kcnetes vainbee tater one Spr ils hsb ansne dak ape ola gebaaegeaa cee tear area tape oly ot
Pehionmvoc thal is12ers here ee tat eee eae cies tee ete Rae cee at ss casinos elblp sata anal nk coke OOaee een eae ORS se 54
Brdicots Clade is 2as20-<: Oo fe Be Ss Sie ns age AS PR ee cc eR ch) ee Sp
Eudicots:/ Rosids: Clade... iiy-cccessse oe ca eee Ma tee earn soho naae oud ab suasat aera eu ci0s cox) peagava doa dae Meee cae 62
Core Hudicots Clacetegeea:: eis ees a eens ciac tater re nt A atcakes sas Sac see mvs ons nnodon vb asad stvasteds shes sesonteeler meee meee ee 12
Bisclicots: Aster tcls(Gyaide weet eoetn eee ae asc eee vosnan ons anu sabapivenssaist «Danguthubyanl cot Mlaatteas owes 124
Whariroots Gla act tic ss cscs ce oe ere te oes aera ree ess Soca Paceath cook peo Vi vcsaseasess3dqnceunutnatensoumstantageemnaniast 182
Medicinal Properties of Plants ........ss.sssssssssessenecsessesscsnssecssenssseensenccsccnccucsnsassnssseassseeseesessessssusessensesssssensssssesseesessssusansansaneens 210
Bibliography........cssessesssssessessessessecsecsecseesecsecsnccnceneeseeasenscssssuccuscussasssesanesnecesesscsucsusenecsecsusanecsecsucesasnccnscancaucansanecnscancqneancansatns 223
Tndex.of Plants by Gemus.ctiic..c.<.ssesiesstorsnncancavessossncnonvenenssccudnssstsensnscssvenssverneussenseaseves dvecssuesonassseonansusosssvnvanessnedacevsncavanesans 226
Index of Plants by Common Names....i-...d:.sscessscsedsssssssssscocsassnssssocencessonectecnsensensenineccessecssonvsssssessnsnssssusssscsnsonesoeuanueansnnaaians 230
Index of Plant Families and Subfamilies by Botanical Names.........:.cccccccccssssssesssescscssscnsasssssetecsesensasssasseesasasaeassesnscacaesnsesenegs 234
Index of Plant Families and Subfamilies by Common Names..............cscsscssscesesencssessssscssserseesessenonsenssessasoseaseesesesssnssosesenenny 235
In Memory of Frank Cook
1963 - 2009
I “knew” Frank Cook for seven or eight years via extensive —
email correspondence. Frank helped edit the fifth edition of Botany .
in a Day, and he used it as a guide in his plant classes around the
world. Every time he would place an order for the book he would
provide a new address “in care of” someone on the East coast, the
West coast, or occasionally overseas.
Frank also led online discussion groups using Botany in a
Day. | enjoyed reading his emails about getting to know the plants,
and I was constantly amazed to hear about his adventures as he
wandered all over the world discovering new plants and meeting
new people. Frank used my book more than I have and clearly knew
more about plants than I ever will. Although I never met Frank, nor
spoke with him on the phone, I came to think of him as a friend.
Frank was like a grapevine, reaching out this way and that
with his tendrils, making connections with people all over the
world. I was one of those connections, and I felt connected through
him to other people he met in his travels, as well as the plant people he discovered along the way. I also connected
with his globe-trotting wanderlust in a vicarious way via his letters. My own life is very rooted in place with projects
and family commitments, and I somehow felt freer just knowing that Frank was out there, exploring the world and
getting to know the plant people. I will greatly miss Frank's presence, his correspondence, and his wandering spirit.
—Thomas J. Elpel
Looking for an online community of plant enthusiasts?

The Frank Cook tradition is being continued by Marc Williams:
www.botanyeveryday.com |www.plantsandhealers.org
yellowbells
Fritillaria pudica
Lily Family
Foreword
Path of Discovery
Grandma Josie loved to walk her dogs in the meadows, following cow trails through the willow thickets and
junipers along the creek. I loved to walk with her, and together we collected wild herbs for teas, including yarrow, blue
violets, peppermint, red clover, and strawberry leaves. We drank herbal tea every day. When I was sick she gave me
yarrow tea with honey in it, plus she buried cloves of garlic in cheese to help me get them down. Grandma kindled
my passion for plants. She taught me the plants she knew, and then I wanted to learn about all the rest.
We collected unfamiliar flowers on our walks and paged through books of color pictures to identify them.
It was not a fast process, but I was a kid and had the luxury of time. If I could not find the name of a specimen in
our books, then I brought it to the herbarium at the university and asked for help. Botanists keyed out the plant and
gave me a botanical name for it. At home I researched the name through all of my books to learn anything I could
about the uses for that species.
There are hundreds of thousands of species of plants in the world, and I approached them one-by-one, as
if each one had nothing to do with any others. It seemed like there should be some rationale to the plant world,
but I did not find it in my library of plant books. Nevertheless, I learned most of the significant plants of southwest
Montana before graduating from high school, or so I thought.
Years later, married and with our house half built, I launched a nature education school and hosted an herbal
class at our place. I thought I “knew” most of the plants discussed in the class, but the herbalist, Robyn Klein, used
an approach I had never seen before. We found several members of the Rose family, and Robyn pointed out the
patterns—that the flowers had five petals and typically numerous stamens, plus each of them contained tannic acid
and were useful as astringents, to help tighten up tissues. An astringent herb, she told us, would help close a wound,
tighten up inflammations, dry up digestive secretions (an aid for diarrhea) and about twenty other things, as you will
learn through the pages of this book. In a few short words she outlined the identification and uses for the majority
of plants in this one family. On this walk she went on to summarize several other families of plants in a similar way.
She cracked open a door to a whole new way of looking at plants.
Some of my books listed family names for the plants, but never suggested how that information could be
useful. I realized that while I knew many plants by name, I never actually stopped to look at any of them! This may
sound alarming, but it is surprisingly easy to match a plant to a picture without studying it to count the flower parts
or notice how they are positioned in relation to each other. In short, Robyn’s
class changed everything I ever knew about plants. From there I had to relearn
all the plants in a whole new way. I set out to study patterns among related spe-
cies, learning to identify plants and their uses together as groups and families.
I wrote this book not merely because I wanted to share what I knew
about patterns in plants, but also because I wanted to use it myself. One prin-
ciple I have learned while writing and teaching is that the ease or difficulty of
learning a subject is not so much a factor of the complexity or volume of the
information, but rather of its packaging. Even the most complex mathematical
concepts can be simple to understand if they are packaged and presented well.
Similarly, learning a thousand different plants and many of their uses can be a
snap when presented with the right packaging. The only way I could really learn
plant patterns was to gather all the information I could find into one place and
see what patterns were revealed. |
This book is designed to shortcut the study of botany andherbology.
The beginning naturalist will quickly have a foundation for the future. The
more experienced may find their knowledge suddenly snapped into focus with oe
a new and solid foundation under that which is already known. Geum elatum
Rose Family -
Thomas J. Elpel
Pony, Montana
Region Covered
Botany in a Day is intended to give the reader the big picture of botany and medicinal plant properties. It
deals more with patterns among related plants than with the details of specific plants. Because the book content is —
broad, the coverage is also broad. Botany in a Day covers most plants you are likely to encounter from coast to coast
across the northern latitudes of North America, with extensive coverage throughout southern states as well.
In addition, many species in North America are identical or very similar to those of Europe and other coun-
tries of similar latitude. Unique plants exist in every locality, yet the majority of plants where you live are likely to be
the same or similar to those covered in this text. Basically, any place that has real winters with hard freezes will have
a great number of plants in common with this book. The vegetation does not radically change until you travel far
enough south and low enough in elevation to drop below the frost belt.
Optimal Range of this Book

Botany in a Day primarily covers plant families of the northern
latitudes, but it has been used successfully on every continent.
Below the frost-belt you will continue to find many of the same and
similar plants, but you will also find whole new plant families not found in
the North. With each revision of the book I have added new plant families
and worked to expand coverage across the southern states.
The biggest challenge with any plant book is in trying to identify a speci-
men that is not included in the text. There is a human tendency to make a
plant fit the available description, even when it is not related to anything in
the book. From that standpoint, Botany in a Day is most useful in the frost
belt of North America where coverage is most complete and slightly less use-
ful as you move farther south. However, readers have successfully used this
book all over the world, and many people written to share their experiences
and observations.
Readers have provided helpful tips about the identification and uses of
related plants from their part of the world. This feedback is incorporated into
this ever-evolving book to the greatest extent possible without compromising
book quality for North American readers.
pink turtlehead In this text, “North America” refers to the United States and Canada—
Chelone obliqua
Plantain Family
everything north of our border with Mexico. Thus, a plant that is “Native
to all of North America.” may or may not be found south of the border.
il
Part I:
Botany in a Day
Botany in a Day Tutorial: How to Proceed
1. The study of botany is the study of patterns in plants. Find a comfortable, quiet place to read for a
while. You will need to read through the tutorial on Plant Names and Classification and The Evolution ofPlants to
understand the big picture of how plants are related to each other and how botanists have sorted them into a filing
system based on their relationships. This background is essential for understanding how and why plants are placed
in certain groups. Did you know, for instance, that grasses are considered “flowering” plants? After you read these
chapters you will be ready to learn some useful patterns for identifying common plants.
ap Read the next section in the tutorial, Learning Plants by Families, and learn to recognize some of the
most common family patterns found throughout the world. Read about these families to learn their characteristics,
then go for a walk and look for plants—wild or domestic—that fit the patterns. The eight families described here
(Mint, Mustard, Parsley, Pea, Lily, Grass, Rose, and Aster) include more than 45,000 species of plants worldwide.
Learn the basic patterns and you will know something about these plants wherever you encounter them. Do not
concern yourself with individual plant names at first; just concentrate on learning the patterns of the families, You
will be farther ahead in the long run, and you may be surprised to discover how much you can know about a new
plant without even knowing its name. See how many plants you can find in each of the families you are studying.
Now you are doing botany!
3. As you become comfortable with the patterns of the plant families from the tutorial, then you can begin
studying new family patterns. I’ve highlighted the most common and easy-to-learn plant families in bold in the Index
ofPlant Families and Subfamilies by Common Names. Practice identifying these families until you are comfortable with
most or all of them before you start learning the rest. I also recommend reading through The Medicinal Properties of
Plants section in the back of the book. A basic understanding of plant properties will often aid you in identifying a
plant. Please wait on utilizing any plants until you build up confidence in your identification skills.
There are many places to look for patterns in plants. Look at wildflowers and weeds and study the flowers
in your yard. Look at pictures in other plant guides and notice those plants that fit the patterns of the families you
are studying. Floral shops, greenhouses, nurseries, and botanic gardens are other good places to study plant patterns.
Some gardens have living displays of plants from all around the world. There you will recognize plants from other
continents that belong to the families you know!
If you are on a nature trail or in a nursery—any place where plants are labeled with their botanical names—you
can look up their names in the Index ofPlants by Genus. Read about the family characteristics and look for those pat-
terns in the specimen before you. You may use the key included in this book at any time, although it is no substitute
for learning the patterns of the families. Start with showy, distinctive flowers first—and simply match them against
the patterns in the key.
4. As you become confident with a few family patterns then you might start identifying individual plants.
The easy method is to search through the drawings and photos of plants within the proper family. Instead of randomly
searching through hundreds or thousands of pictures, you can narrow it down to a single family. Some illustrations
are provided for that purpose in this text, but you should also use this book in conjunction with other picture books.
Many plant guides are organized alphabetically or by the color of the flower; these books can ultimately
hinder your progress in learning plants. Look for books that are organized according to plant families. At the very
least, make sure the book includes the family name with each plant. A few of my favorite field guides, plus access to
hundreds of my own wildflower photos, are available through our web site at www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com.
Botany in a Day Tutorial
Plant Names and Classification

The Name Game
On picnics with my grandmother, we often picked teaberries, which grew in dense profusion beneath the
canopy of lodgepole pine trees. The berries were delicious and infinitely abundant, yet so small that a person could
starve to death while gorging on them. Strangely, I couldn’t find a plant called “teaberry” in my library of plant
books. That’s the problem with common names; they vary from place to place and person to person. Even if there
was a consensus on a plant name throughout a country or within one language, one would naturally expect different
names in different languages. Moreover, unrelated plants might share the same common name, making it impos-
sible to know which plant is the subject of discussion or study. That can become a serious problem when trying to
determine the edible or medicinal uses of a plant.
I didn’t know what a teaberry was until I successfully identified the plant myself in a book, listed under the
name “grouse whortleberry,” so named because grouse eat the berries. But it wasn’t the new common name that
mattered so much as having the plant’s botanical name, Vaccinium scoparium.
Every plant has a unique two-part botanical name or binomial nomenclature, based on a system established
by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 book Species Plantarum. Botanical names are primarily formed from Latin and classical
Greek roots, as well as Latinized names and phrases from other languages. The first name is the genus name (plural:
genera), and the first letter is always capitalized. The second part is the species name, and it is always lowercased.
Both are always italicized, as in Vaccinium scoparium. | may not know how to pronounce this botanical name, but
this one name is used in every book, and by every author on every continent and in every language.
Herbalist Robyn Klein points out that these two-part names are much like our system of first and last names.
For example, I belong to the genus Flpel, and my species name is Thomas. Other “species” of the Elpel genus include:
Cherie, Nick, Alan, Marc, and Jeanne. Species names are meaningless on their own, because many people have the
same names around the world. But the names Cherie Elpel or Jeanne Elpel are quite
unique.
Similarly, there are about 450 species of Vaccinium in the world, includ-
ing more than 40 species in North America and 7 species in my home state of
Montana. Fortunately you do not have to write out Vaccinium for each species.
You can abbreviate the genus after the first time you have used it. For instance,
other species of huckleberries in Montana include V. cespitosum, V. membranaceum,
V. myrtilloides, V. myrtillus, V. ovalifolium, and V. uliginosum. If you want to talk
about the whole group at once then you just write out “Vaccinium spp.” This ab-
breviation means species plural.
It is not necessary to memorize botanical names; you only need to refer to them
when communicating about a plant to another person, or if you want to research
that plant in other books. But you may be surprised at how many names you
memorize just by looking them up in the indexes of other books.
Botanical names are especially useful for emphasizing relationships among
plants. For example, Vaccinium is the genus name for huckleberries, blueberries,
and bilberries. Knowing that instantly redefines what a grouse whortleberry really
is. And if you learn a few huckleberries and blueberries, then you will likely recog-
f common bilberry nize any new ones you encounter as well, even if you don’t know their individual
of Vaccinium myrtillus eins ; } senlyke
| Heath Family ames. You could be hiking in the middle of Siberia and find a berry bush you
have never seen or heard of before, but because you recognize its similarity to other
huckleberries, you know you can safely eat it.
2
Plant Names and Classification
In other words, sometimes it is more im-

What do the numbers and dots mean?
portant to recognize a plant as a relative of other
_ After each plant listed in this book you will see some _ Plants you know, rather than to know its individual
_ numbers in parenthesis. The numbers indicate how many "ame. For that reason, I don’t refer to V. scoparium
species from that genus are present around the world, in 28 gtouse whortleberry or teaberry. Instead, I call it
North America, as well as in my home state of Montana. For dwarf huckleberry, which succinctly describes what
example, “Rosa—rose (100/54/6)” indicates that there are the plant is, how it compares in size to other huck-
about 100 different species of rose in the world, 54 native _ leberries, and the fact that it is edible and delicious.
and/or introduced species in North America, and 6 species 10 this sense, standardized common names can be as
just in Montana. Your state may have more or less than this _US¢ful as botanical names for conveying information
number. Most species within a genus will have similar prop- about plants and their uses. Interestingly, common
erties and uses. For example, all 100 species of roses likely "ames are becoming increasingly standardized, at
produce edible rosehips, or at least it is highly improbable east within the English language, as they are used
that any of them are seriously poisonous. online in a shared global dialogue. Unfortunately, the
The dot “*” after many of the names is my personal ©PPOsite is true with formal botanical names, which
checklist of recognized genera. You are encouraged to mark 4"€ multiplying at an alarming rate as botanists at-
the plants that you learn as well. You might use a Disa lige §=6‘emprto clarify genetic relationships between plants.
on the names, and you may want to make a note of the loca- : f
tion to help jog your memory the next time you come across Classification Schemes
the name in the book. You can also highlight the names in If you had a few hundred thousand files to organize
the index. in a filing cabinet, how would you do it? How would
I've been building a gallery of color photos on our you organize all the information so that you, or any-
web site at www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com. If there is a one else on the planet, could quickly and efficiently
“e” after a name, then there is a good chance we have one or find any one file out of the whole bunch? And what
more color photos from that genus posted on our web site. if you had a file in hand, but didn’t know what it
New photos are added each year. was called or where it fit into the filing system? How
would you ever figure it out? In botany, the process
can be surprisingly easy, because plants are grouped according to patterns of similarity. Learn the patterns, and you
can start with an unknown specimen and track it down through the filing system to learn its identity.
At its most basic level, plant patterns are often quite simple. Suppose you had two different species of wild
rose. They clearly look like different plants, and yet, both plants look
like roses, so you call one the prickly rose (Rosa acicularis) and the
other the climbing rose (2. setigera). Binomial nomenclature is fairly
instinctive in this regard. ;
Grouping closely related species together into genera like this
is the first step in building a filing system. But, let’s say you ripped
every living plant from the earth and sorted them all into piles by
genera. That would still leave thousands of separate piles, with no
clear means to organize them. So the next step is to compare genera
and lump similar genera together into bigger piles, which we call the
family. Family patterns are not nearly as close as the patterns within
any one genus, but still similar enough that one can learn to recognize
many such patterns at a glance.
If a family is especially large, or its members sufficiently
distinct from one another, then there may be subgroupings within a
family, called the subfamily and tribe. For example, pears belong to
the Apple tribe of the Almond subfamily within the Rose family. This
indicates that pears are more closely related to apples and loquats than
to raspberries, which are of the Rose subfamily of the Rose family. ae prickly rose
By grouping plants according to family patterns, we reduce the total rosehip Rosa acicularis
Rose Family
number of piles to a few hundred, which is far better than thousands,
but still too many piles to make an efficient filing system.
D
A higher level of classification, above the species, genus, and family, is the order. For the purposes of field
identification, orders are sufficiently different from one another that there are few useful patterns to work with.
But that doesn’t stop botanists from trying to classify them. For example, based on careful scrutiny, the Saxifrage,
Gooseberry, Hydrangea, Pea, and many other families were previously classified as part of the Rose order. However,
genetic analysis refuted those associations and instead revealed that the Rose order should include families such as"
the Hemp, Oleaster, Mulberry, Buckthorn, Elm, and
Stinging Nettle—none of which share any obvious Phylogenetic Tree of the Rose Order
resemblance with the Rose family. Rose Order
Soastes Rose Family
_ Above the level of order, there are (or were) Rosaceae
additional levels of classification, some with useful Buckthorn Family

Rhamnaceae
characteristics for identification, and some without.
Oleaster Family
Imagine the entire plant kingdom as a filing cabi- Elaeagnaceae
net in which botanists identified distinct divisions,
classes, subclasses, orders, families, subfamilies, Elm Family
Ulmaceae
tribes, genera, and species, as outlined here, along
Hemp Family
with each appropriate suffix:
Cannabaceae
Mulberry Family
Division (-p/yta) Genetic analysis reveals the relationship Moraceae
Class (-eae, opsida) between the Roses and other families within Nettle Family
Subclass (-ae) the Rose order. Urticaceae
Order (-ales)
Family (-aceae)
Subfamily (-oideae)
Tribe (-eae)
Genus
Species
Many different classification schemes have been proposed, adopted, utilized, and ultimately rejected as
more accurate information becomes available. The latest effort (and hopefully the last) is based on genetic research
coordinated by a worldwide team of taxonomists known as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). Taxonomists
sequence a small part of the genome from a species and map out how
closely it is related to other species, producing detailed branching
phylogenetic trees, as shown above for families of the Rose order. The
APG approach is theoretically more accurate, because taxonomists are
compiling objective data about genetic relationships, rather than just
looking at eaci species and guessing its relationship to other species.
The APG system recognizes orders, families, subfamilies, and
so forth, but doesn’t (yet) categorize anything above orders, except as
monophyletic groups known as clades. Monophyletic translates to “one
branch,” meaning that any group of organisms should include only the
genetic descendants (all of them) going back to a particular ancestor.
For example, Genghis Khan fathered several hundred, if not
thousands of children, and his sons were also prolific, leading to an
estimated 16 million descendents today, nearly 800 years later. Selecting
Khan as an arbitrary branching point, a monophyletic group or clade
would include all of his descendants.
If any of Khan's brothers’ descendants were accidentally included,
it would be considered a polyphyletic group. On the other hand, if any
A Clade of Khans of Khan’s descendants were accidentally classified as descendants of
Selecting Genghis Khan as an arbitrary branching
point, a monophyletic group or clade would include either of his brothers, it would be considered a paraphyletic group. But
his descendants (all of them), but none from his don't panic. These terms are not used elsewhere in this book. Only
siblings. phylogenetic tree and clade are used in the text.
4
The Evolution of Plants
Evolution of Plants
A Puzzle Without All the Pieces
Piecing together the story of evolution is challenging, since 99.9 percent of everything that ever lived is now
extinct. Irying to understand evolution through living species of plants and animals is like trying to interpret
a novel
from the last paragraph. You can see the outcome, but do not know how the story unfolded.
The plot lies hidden in fossil records where plants and animals have been buried and turned to stone over
thousands of millenia. Although this story is conveniently laid down in the linear sequence of geologic time, it is
unfortunately a very fragmented tale. At best, fossil records are the equivalent of finding a few scattered words and
phrases to the story. Most living organisms rot away without leaving a trace. Fossilized specimens are the exception
rather than the rule, and evolutionary links connecting one species to another are even more scarce.
Scientists once assumed that the entire gene pool
of each species continually underwent gradual change. But OTe fossil record is the equiva lent of
mutant genes tend to get diluted away in large populations :
and fail to spread. And fossil records typically reveal sudden, finding ¢ few scattered words and zBhrases
dramatic changes from one layer to the next, not gradual to the StOrY. Most living organisms rot away
changes. Researchers now understand that gradual changes without leaving a trace.”
and new species evolve “on the margin.”
Imagine a valley hundreds of miles across, surrounded by mountains on all sides. Suppose that only one
type of grass seed were deposited into this valley. Coincidentally, the whole expanse of the valley is the ideal habitat
for this particular type of grass. The valley fills up and evolution stalls. There are always mutations, but the grass is
already optimized for the environment so the mutations fail to spread. However, there is greater habitat diversity
around the perimeter of the valley. Individual microclimates might be warmer or colder or more wet or dry than the
valley itself. There could also be different soil chemistry. The valley grass might survive in each of these areas, but it
wouldn't prosper. Gradual mutations would occur over time, and some abnormalities would be more optimized to
conditions on the margin. Given enough time, distinct new species could evolve.
Then a sudden disturbance comes to the valley. Perhaps
“Evolution proceeds both gradually and the climate changes, causing the valley to become slightly
aden ly.Tt is revealed in the fossal record as warmer and wetter. The valley becomes more favorable to
; are ‘ a ae a grass species from the margin, resulting in an apparent
long pertods of. stability with p eriodic jues “jump” in evolution from one species to another. The
to completely new spectes. . previously dominant species is limited back to habitat on
the margin or completely eliminated while the new species
suddenly invades the habitat. Thus evolution proceeds both
gradually and suddenly. It is revealed in the fossil record as long periods of stability with periodic jumps to completely
new species. For example, scientists researching trilobites, an extinct marine arthropod, found a jump in the fossil
record from those with seventeen pairs of eyes to those with eighteen pairs of eyes. It took years of searching to find
the margin where both types were present. “
Similarly, it could be said that stable, balanced ecosystems tend to limit innovations, while major life-killing
disturbances—such as meteor impacts—tend to favor them. Eliminating competition greatly increases the odds for
all kinds of mutations to survive and fill the void. New species emerge, optimize to fit specific ecological niches, and
evolution stalls again. In the fossil record we see it as long periods of stability with sudden jumps to comipletely new
life forms. The geologically brief periods of significant mutant activity are much less likely to be recorded or found
in the fossil record.
ERA P ERIOD Mit YEARS EVOLUTIONARY EVENT

Cenozoic} Quarterna 0-1.65 Modern humans.
1.65-23 Human ancestors, horses, dogs, asters,
Tert./Paleogene 23-65 Primates, deer, grasses, lilies, roses, pe
Mesozoic| Cretaceous 65-143 Flowering plants spread. Broad-leaf trees, palms.
Jurassic 143-213 First flowering plants. First birds.
Triassic 213-248 First dinosaurs and mammals.
Paleozoic| Permian 248-290 Modern insects like dragonflies and beetles app
Pennsylvanian 290-323 Coal age— First cycads, primitive conifers.
Mississippian 323-362 Coalage— First winged insects. Reptiles.
Devonian 362-408 Ferns, horsetails, club mosses. First amphibians.
Silurian 408-440 Vascular plants, first millipedes. Fish with jaws.
Ordovician 440-510 _‘ First fish. Plant/fungus symbiosis begins on land.
Neo-Proterozoic 570-900 First multi-celled life, and first herbivores.

Meso-Proterozoic 900-1,600 Atmosphere oxygenated. First bisexual reproduction.
Paleo-Proterozoic 1,600-2,500 First Eukaryotic cells with nucleus and organelles
Archean Eon 2,500-3,800 First simple bacteria & blue-green algae celis
Hadean Eon 3,800-4,500 Earth's Crust and Oceans Form. No Life.
Life Begins
Life started in the oceans an estimated 3.6 to 3.8 billion years ago as simple, single-celled organisms called
prokaryotes, which lacked a nucleus, mitochondria, or other membrane-bound organelles. There are two distinct
groups of prokaryotes, known as bacteria and archaea. These organisms reproduce asexually, each splitting in half
to form two exact copies of the original. For example, blue-green algae (also known as cyanobacteria) uses energy
from sunlight to convert resources into living tissue. The algae grew, multiplied, and populated the oceans. Each cell
divided into exact duplicates of itself, so mutations were few and far between. That was about it for life on Earth
until approximately 2 to 2.5 billion years ago, when cells developed specialized parts.
Complex cells with a nucleus apparently originated when prokaryote cells absorbed other species, forming
symbiotic relationships. Previously independent archaea and bacteria became specialized organelles for storing DNA,
digesting nutrients, burning sugars fot energy, or copying DNA into new proteins. These new eukaryotic cells became
the foundation for more complex life forms, and sped up the process of evolution, but just barely.
It wasn't until about 1.5 billion years ago that the next significant evolutionary event occurred: bisexual
reproduction. Bisexual reproduction allowed slightly different versions of genetic knowledge to be combined into
new, living products. This accelerated the evolutionary process and led to the development of the first multicellular
organisms 900 million years ago, including tiny animals, worms, sponges, and large forms of algae. The first herbivores
; (plant-eaters) evolved a few hundred million years
Phylogenetic Tree of Life later, and may have triggered the Cambrian explo-
We are all descended from common ancestry. This illustration depicts inferred _. ah oi Theat Weageatt ots S70 nail
evolutionary relationships between all lifeforms on earth. SOD) OF TES Species Rear ee sca
Eucaryota Years ago.
eckacvoled) sonatas MO activate Herbivores were the first “predators.” Until they
Bacteria Archaea fungi came along, early multicellular organisms lived in
plants peaceful coexistence. Herbivores upset the balance
cyanobacteria and wiped out many primitive, defenseless organ-
isms. Evolution favored mutants, and oceans of
habitat awaited any organisms capable of escaping,
hiding, or defending themselves against predators.
Giardia
This, in turn, encouraged the evolution of more
advanced predators, in a feedback cycle that quickly
filled the oceans with all kinds of life, such as jel-
lyfish, shelled animals, and arthropods. (Arthropods became the ancestors of later insects, spiders, and crustaceans.)
Evolution of the herbivores may have also helped initiate the rapid colonization of land a mere 60 million years later,
starting in the Ordovician period. Any primitive plant that could adapt to the shoreline of an estuary, river, or lake
would have the added advantage of living beyond the reach of herbivores in the ocean. However, there was one major
obstacle in the effort to colonize land.
Life in the ocean was sustained solely by the external flow of nutrients. Plant life in the ocean survived by
absorbing nutrients from the water. These nutrients reached plants through disturbances at sea. Upwellings brought
minerals up from the bottom while ocean currents brought minerals out from shore. Plants survived in these paths of
disturbance and animals survived by eating the plants. Otherwise, the ocean was (and still is) largely a desert because
the minerals are not equally distributed.
To make the transition to land, plants had to evolve from floating in the nutrient stream to carrying the
nutrient stream inside. Paleontologists Mark and Dianna McMenamin theorize that this evolutionary jump was ac-
complished by plants forming a symbiotic relationship with fungus.
Fungus is neither plant nor animal. It is a third type of life that produces enzymes capable of breaking down
dead organic matter, living tissue, and even rock. It is speculated that somewhere along a shoreline, a defective proto-
fungus attacked a proto-plant, but failed to kill it. Instead the fungus inadvertently began feeding the plant with
minerals from the soil, while simultaneously extracting carbohydrates back from the plant.
Today, 90 percent of all plants associate with fungus in the soil, and 80 percent could not survive without
their fungal partners. In many cases, fungi live in the core of the plant. Some simple plants like the club mosses lack
a complete vascular system for circulating water and nutrients, but their fungal partners live inside the stems and
provide that function.
The McMenamins researched the fossil record for signs of symbiosis between plants and fungi, and found
evidence of a link among the earliest fossils. They examined slices of cells from high-quality fossils and found fungal
hyphae inside the plant cells. The plant-fungus association internalized the nutrient stream and gave the proto-plant
independence from the ocean currents to grow and evolve along the shore and ultimately on land. The force of
evaporation served as a pump to move nutrients up from the soil through the plants.
The symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi set the stage for yet another explosion of new life forms.
Within 100 million years life on land had become more diverse than in the oceans. In the remaining 350 million
years since then, life on land seems to have evolved at an ever-increasing speed. Today there are twice as many spe-
cies on land as in the ocean. Although the surface of the planet is one-third land and two-thirds water, the land area
produces a whopping fifty times as much biomass (organic matter) as the oceans.
Living pannershn> Lichens form as a symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi.
Most plants form symbiotic The algae use chlorophyll to photosynthesize sugars from sunlight,
relationships with fungi in . water, and air. The fungus provides a protective structure and feeds
the soil. The fungi help off sugars produced by the algae.
extend the reach ofthe
plant roots to obtain water
and nutrients that might not be
available otherwise. In return,
the plants manufacture sugars
through photosynthesis to feed
the fungi. Ninety percent of all
plants associate with fungi this
way. Eighty percent
of all plants, including
this orchid, could not
survive without their
fungal partners.
pink lady-slipper “A& Usnea barbata

! Cypripedium acaule
Orchid Family Parmelia conspersa
The Land Plants

vascular plants Few fossil links have been found in the
nonvascular plants from the development of modern plants,
as serch ameae
aeee but the available living and fossilized plants,
in addition to genetic evidence, suggests a
a ye logical progression from simple to complex
vegetation. The following list provides a gen-
mosses, ferns, eralized outline of the evolutionary process:
conifers cat
liverworts, horsetails
plants
hornorts * Spore Plants without a Vascular System
* Spore Plants with a Vascular System
* Naked Seeds
¢ Flowering plants
* Monocots, Dicots, and Eudicots
*¢Specisli zed Flowers
ancestral
green algae Evolution of the Land Plants Composite Flowers
Note that lichens evolved independently from true plants as an association between fungi and algae. The
algae are a layer of single-celled plants near the surface, just below a gelatinized layer of fungal hyphae. Algae absorb
nutrients through the surface and provide energy through photosynthesis, while the fungi absorbs moisture and
provides a protective structure for the algae. This habit gives lichens the adaptability to live almost anywhere, even on
rocks, trees or buildings. On the other hand, lichens are highly susceptible to airborne pollutants, which they absorb
in toxic concentrations. The fungi and algae are otherwise independent organisms capable of surviving without each
other, and they only form lichens when both are present.
Varied and often bright lichen colors come from acid crystals stored in their tissues. The acid is used to
etch holes in wood, rock, buildings, and other surfaces to give the lichens something to grab. The lichens then insert
thread-like appendages as anchors. Most of the so-called “mosses,” especially those found hanging from tree branches,
are actually lichens. True mosses are distinctively green like other plants. Lichens are now considered part of the Fungi
kingdom, and are not included in this book.
Spore Plants without a Vascular system

The most simple land plants reproduce with spores and have no vascular system (internal plumbing). These
plants—the true mosses, hornworts, and liverworts—are limited in size because they lack internal plumbing to
; - transport water and nutrients. Mosses and
liverworts live in many environments, but are
especially common on rocks along babbling
brooks where they are above the water, but
constantly damp. These soft-bodied plants
leave little trace in the fossil record, but seem
to have arisen early in the lineage of the land
plants.
Specific information about the me-
dicinal properties of mosses and liverworts
Marchantia is hard to come by, but Sphagnum and
f polymorpha other mosses are typically highly acidic and
antibiotic. Sphagnum moss has been used to
dress. wounds, with better results than ordi-
nary sterilized pads. Corpses of people that
Spaghnum a5 drowned in peat bogs long ago were nicely
sore “preserved by the acidic water. Beyond this
Mosses and Liverworts introduction, spore plants without a vascular
(nonvascular spore plants) system are not covered in this book.
Spore Plants with a Vascular System Reproduction with Spores

The first plants with a vascular system Spores drop to the ground and develop into a
apparently developed through an association be- _thallus with male and female organs. The
tween plants and fungi, where the fungi provided Male organs have swimming sperms to find
mineral nutrients and the plants provided energy and fertilize the egg cells. After fertilization, the
through photosynthesis. This association helped ; 4 thallus grows into a new f
internalize the nutrient stream so that water and plant.
nutrients could be transported through the veg- female organs
etation. Given that water molecules are naturally
drawn to each other like weak magnets, evapora-
male organs
tion through the leaves (a.k.a. “transpiration”)
effectively serves as a pump to pull an unbroken
chain of water molecules up from the soil:
The relationship between plants and
fungi has likely led to genetic exchanges over time.
There is a tremendous evolutionary advantage in 7
being able to share genetic information between wholly unrelated species. Just imagine if you exchanged DNA with a
bird, an apple, or a mushroom. Many such exchanges could lead to fatal defects, but any successful exchange would
tend to accelerate the evolutionary process much more than simply exchanging genes with a member of your own
species. Much of the human genome is believed to be bits of DNA acquired from viruses.
The development of the vascular system allowed plants to stand upright and reach for the sky, a distinct
evolutionary advantage over the lowly mosses and liverworts. Our first forests were comprised of these spore-producers
with vascular systems—the ferns, clubmosses, and horsetails. In this first forest, the clubmosses and horsetails grew
into giant trees, often over a 100 feet tall. These plants thrived at a time when the earth’s climate was moderated by
ocean currents circulating warm equatorial waters up around the poles. The spore plants flourished in the tropical
climate for millions of years and laid down the organic matter that eventually became our coal deposits.
Primitive plants like clubmosses, horsetails, and ferns reproduce with spores. The spores drop to the ground
and grow into a minute vegetative part called the “thallus.” This term is used to describe a vegetative structure that
is not differentiated into leaves or a stem. The thallus produces sexual organs, including female egg cells and male
swimming sperms to fertilize them. After fertilization the thallus grows into a new plant, as illustrated above. Read
more about spore plants with a vascular system on pages 38 to 45.
Ferns and their Allies male fern :

(vascular spore plants) Dryopteris filix-mas @ we
Wood Fern Family
lake quillwort S
lsoetes lacustris
Quillwort Family
stiff clubmoss field horsetail

Lycopodium annotinum fF Equisetum arvense
Clubmoss Family Horsetail Familly
Naked Seeds
Evolution eventually led to fertilization occurring
on the mother plant, rather than on the ground. Seed ferns,
now extinct, were the first seed producers, followed by cycads
and ginkos, and later conifers and flowering plants.
Conifers, for example, produce two sizes of cones
from modified clusters of leaves with spore sacks at the
base of each “leaf.” Large cones produce big spores, which
develop into a thallus-like structure and produce egg cells,
called ovules, within the cones. The smaller cones produce
tiny spores, which also develop into a thallus-like structure,
but they produce the male sperm cells called pollen. Instead
of tails to swim, the sperm or pollen is encased in a tough
coat to resist drying. The cones open and release the pollen whitebark pine \ \
to the wind to find and fertilize the egg cells. pine
* Soe Pinus albicaulis seedling
Pollen reaches the egg cells and fertilizes them within _ Pine Family
.
the protective structure of the plant. The fertilized cells begin
to develop into a new plant, but then the growth is stopped, Naked Seeds
ile? The first plants to evolve beyond spores to produce true
: P
y (literally P
P the gymnosperms
and the new plant is: shed as a seed. In favorable conditionsseeds were “naked seeds’).
the seed absorbs moisture, swells, and resumes growth. This They are considered naked because their egg cells are
gives the baby plants a considerable advantage over those that exposed to the air and fertilized when pollen lands directly
are borne from spores. OO AIS,
In a crude analogy, imagine that spore
plants are like the reptiles that lay their eggs and
leave, whereas seed plants are more like mammals
that gestate the eggs internally and give birth to a
partially developed being. It is a tactical advantage
for the seed plants as they are developmentally
ahead of the spore plants when they reach the soil.
In addition, the seed provides a means of storing
starch. The seedling relies on this energy reserve
for rapid growth while it establishes itself among
the competition.
The gymnosperms (literally “naked seeds”)
first appear in the fossil record about 360 million
years ago. These were the first plants to evolve
beyond spores and produce true seeds. They are
referred to as naked seeds because the egg cells
are slightly exposed to the air and fertilized by the
pollen landing directly on the surface.
Among conifers, for example, the female
cones become elongated for a short time when
the male cones are releasing pollen. This exposes
the egg cells or ovules to the pollen in the wind.
The shape of the cones causes air currents to swirl
around them to help catch this pollen. The shape
maidenhair tree of the pollen and the shape of the cones are aero-
Ginkgo biloba
Ginkgo Family /
dynamically matched to each other, so each species
captures its own pollen. After pollination the scales
grow rapidly and cover the ovules, allowing them
Ginkgo, a native of China, is considered a “living fossil,” similarto fossil to mature into seeds. Read more about naked seed
specimens from 270 million years ago. It has no close living relatives. plants of North America on pages 46 to 49.
10
Flowering Plants Water Lily a

It is difficult to imagine a world of greenery without colorful
flowers. But flowers first appear in the fossil record only about 130 mil-
lion years ago and didn’t become widespread until about 100 million
years ago. Flowers co-evolved with insects, presumably as primitive
insects tracked pollen from the male sporangia over to female egg cells
on the same or separate plants. Eventually the plants developed nec-
taries and showy petals to attract and feed the insects, and the insects
developed wings to move from flower to flower.
Like many gymnosperms, ancestral flowers typically devel-
oped reproductive parts on cone-like receptacles. There were multiple,
overlapping layers of sepals and petals, or “tepals” if one could not be
distinguished from the other. Male stamens and female carpels or pistils sepals-to-petals-to-stamens transition
were also numerous and variable in number.
These floral parts evolved as modifications of the leaves. Today, sepals are green and leaf-like on most plants,
but in some species they are colored like petals. In the water lily there is a visible transition from sepals on the outside
to petals and then stamens on the inside. Thus, petals are modifications of the sepals, and stamens are modifications
of petals. Plant breeders often manipulate these features of the flowers. For example, most plants of the Rose family
have five petals, including wild roses. The extra petals in many domestic rose varieties were bred from stamens.
A defining step in the evolution of flowering plants was to
enclose the developing seeds deeper inside the parent plant. While Evolution of the Pistil
gymnosperms expose their ovules to open air for pollination, flowering sporangia f
plants, or angiosperms, wrap the ovules entirely inside the ovary or pistil, 6 ox (ovules) ‘
which, in its most simple form, consists of a single carpel. Pollen lands ce)
} ee:
on the tip of the pistil and grows a sort of “root” down into the ovary 10
O ce) Qo
to reach the ovule. The pollen has two nuclei: the first nucleus controls Qjo
growth through the pistil, while the second carries genetic information
and passes it along to the ovule. Chemicals used by the pollen to burrow
through the pistil are identical to some that are produced by fungi, so it
is suspected that plants acquired genes to do this through their intimate
relationship with fungi.
fertile leaf ——— folded margins ——+ fusion
The enclosed ovary became a flexible means of creating many
new dispersal systems. For instance, berries and other fruits are usually The enclosed ovary of the flowering plants likely
evolved through modification of fertile leaves.
swollen ovaries, designed to be eaten and later defecated as a means to
Plants with folded leaves better protected the
transport and plant the seeds. The ovaries around maple seeds develop ovules, leading to more successful offspring.
into wings to disperse the seeds on the wind. The ovaries of some plants As the trend continued over time, the leaf margins
develop into spring-like systems to propel the seeds away. The evolution completely fused together, forming an individual
of mammals is closely linked to development of the plant ovary and its carpel or simple pistil.
fleshy fruits, nuts, and grains.

You might be surprised that grass and many other non-showy plants are considered flowering plants. They
also produce stamens and pistils and develop seeds in an enclosed ovary. They have merely adapted to wind pollina-
tion and lack a need for showy petals to attract insects. (See the Quick Guide to Flower Terms inside the front cover for
It is helpful to anthropomorphize botany for a better grasp of the reproductive process, much as it was
described by Peter Tompkins and Christopher Bird in their book The Secret Life ofPlants:
“School children might have been fascinated to learn that each corn kernel on a cob in summer ts a separate
ovule, that each strand on the pubic corn silk tufted around the cob is an individual vagina ready to suck up the pollen
sperm brought to it on the wind, that it may wriggle the entire length ofthe stylized vagina to impregnate each kernel on
the cob, that every single seed produced on the plant is the result ofa separate impregnation. Instead ofstruggling with
archaic nomenclature, teenagers might be interested to learn that each pollen grain impregnates but one womb, which
contains but one seed, that a capsule of tobacco contains on average 2,500 seeds which require 2,500 impregnations,
all of which must be effected within a period of24 hours in a space less than one-sixteenth ofan inch in diameter.”
11
more details on floral parts.) Despite being recently evolved (geologically

speaking), flowering plants now dominate the planet with the most species
and most widespread abundance. Remnants of evolutionary progression
can still be seen in modern flowering plants, particularly of the Water Lily,
Magnolia, and Buttercup families (pages 50 - 57). In particular, trees of the
Magnolia family bear seeds in a large cone-like structure at the center of
the flowers. To a lesser degree the plants of the Buttercup family produce
similar flowers.
Counterintuitively, big trees and small plants with flowers are often
cone-like closely related. For example, strawberries and apples are both in the Rose
/ flowers family. The flower pattern matters more than the vegetation. To under-
stand why, imagine a dandelion growing in shade and another growing in
full sun. The one in the shade is going to appear lush, with leaves up to
a foot long, while the dandelion in the sun will be a much smaller, more
> compact plant. An amateur naturalist might not even recognize them as
} the same plant. Yet the flowers on both plants are identical. The shape of
<. leaves and stems are very flexible and easily adapt to new and different
M ag nolia Fami ly conditions. Overall, there is more evolutionary pressure on the vegetation
than on the flowers, so a group of related plants can have vastly different
vegetation, but similar blossoms.
Another development in flowering plants was deciduous vegetation, possibly the result of climate change.
The world climate was moderated 300 million years ago during the Coal Age by warm ocean currents flowing from
the equator up over the North Pole. The climate today is much harsher. Flowering trees adapted to the climate by
dropping their leaves and becoming dormant in the winter. They shed old, worn-out leaves to enrich their own soil
while also safeguarding against potential damage from heavy snows. In the spring they burst forth with vigorous
new leaves. In a similar way, perennial flowers can be thought of as deciduous too. They store excess energy in their
roots during the growing season, then die off above ground for the winter. The energy stored in the roots allows the
plants to re-emerge in the spring.
Illustrations on the next two pages summarize everything we have covered so far, followed by the next step
in this evolutionary progression—monocots, dicots, and the newly defined eudicots.
The Flowering Plants
5
: reed canarygrass
Phalaris arundinacea
Wj Apache plume Grass Family
y © Fallugia paradoxa post oak
Rose Family Quercus stellata
Beech Family 4
Flowers, grasses, and most trees are considered “flowering plants.”
Each produces stamens and pistils, and their seeds mature in an enclosed ovary.
TZ
Three Domains and Six Kingdoms

Early classification systems had just two kingdoms: Plants and Animals. In 1894, Ernst Haeckel added a third kingdom
for one-celled life, called the Protists. In 1969, Robert Whittaker separated the bacteria (cells without a nuclei) from the
Protists into a new kingdom called the Monera. He also split the Fungi out from the Plants, for a total of five kingdoms.
In 1977, Carl Woese replaced the Monera kingdom with two distinct kingdoms of bacteria: the Archaeabacteria and the
Eubacteria, for a total of six kingdoms. However, research showed that the Plant, Animal, and Fungus kingdoms shared
the same cell-structure as the Protists, and all belonged in one group. Therefore, in 1990 Woese originated the concept
of domains that superceded the kingdoms. He grouped the Plants, Animals, Fungi, and Protists into the new Eukarya
domain. The two kingdoms of bacteria were both elevated to domain status. This illustration depicts the three domains
and all six kingdoms. Time and research will bring more revisions.
AY
“Animal Kingdom
Protist Kingdom
(Ancestral to the Plant,
Gg
Fungi, and Animal Kingdoms.)
/ @) Eukaryotic
cells with a
These nucleus and This group
anaerobic bacteria ‘ specialized includes cyanobacteria
(they live without oxygen) Y_/ organelles. These ("blue-green algae")
thrive in hostile environments, are mostly single-celled and many other bacteria not
such as hot springs or salt water, organisms, plus multi-“* included in the Archaea.
or in your intestines, where they
celled lifeforms like
produce methane gas.
seaweed.
Eukarya Domain
(Includes Protist, Plant, Fungi
and Animal Kingdoms.) Bacteria Kingdom
Archaea Kingdom
"a.k.a. Archaeabacteria’ "a.k.a. Eubacteria"
Archaea Domain Bacteria Domain
Ancestral Life Forms

3.6 —3.8 Billion Years Ago
13
Variation in the Plant Kingdom

Nonvascular Spore Plants: The most simple members of the Plant Kingdom are the mosses, hornworts, and
liverworts. These plants reproduce with spores, and they are limited in size because they lack a vascular system
(internal plumbing) for transporting water and nutrients.
Vascular Spore Plants: Moving clockwise around the graph, the plants become increasingly complex. Clubmosses,
horsetails, and ferns also reproduce with spores, but they do have a vascular system for transporting water and
nutrients, so they can grow much larger.
Naked Seeds: Cycads, ginko, conifers, and gnetums also have a vascular system, but reproduce with seeds
instead of spores. They are called gymnosperms or “naked seeds” because the ovule (female egg cell) is exposed to
the open air during pollination. .
Flowering Plants: Angiosperms or flowering plants dominate the world today. In these plants, ovules are completely
contained within the ovary of the flower. Pollen has to penetrate the ovary to fertilize the ovules.
Numbers below reflect the approximate number of known species worldwide. There may be as many more species
yet undiscovered.
Nonvascular
ati= aay ah Plants
Vascular
Spore Plants
Hornworts
100 species y
Liverworts
» 8,500 species SARLS7
jf Clubmosses ®
1,200 species S
Ginko 4 species
Conifers <Q
550 species Wi
Flowering Plants
260,000 species N :
* Gnetums—
80 species
Naked Seeds
Seeds totally enclosed inside the ovary ;
14
Monocots, Dicots, and Eudicots

All flowering plants were previously classified as one of two major groups: monocotyledons or dicotyledons,
depending on‘whether the seeds have one seed leaf or two. Breaking it down, mono means one, di means two, and
cotyle-don translates to “seed-leaf.” Corn is a monocot because it has only one seed leaf. A bean, on the other hand,
is a dicot because their are two seed leaves. Soak a bean in wet paper towels until it sprouts and you can see the two
seed leaves, one from each half of the bean. (Note that non-flowering plants, such as pine trees, can have variable
numbers of cotyledons. See the pine seedling on page 10.)
There are some striking differences between monocots and dicot plants. Most monocot plants have leaves
with parallel veins, like grass, while most dicot plants have net-veined leaves. Even dicots that initially seem to have
parallel venation, such as plantain (Plantago), actually have a smaller net-like pattern between the larger veins. There
are always exceptions, but leaf venation is a good starting point. In addition, most (not all) dicot plants have floral
parts in fours and fives. On the other hand, most monocot plants (not all) have floral parts in threes. If a plant has
both parallel veins in the leaves and floral parts in multiples of three then it is definitely a monocot.
If there is still any doubt, then take a look at the branches or roots. Monocots are typically simple and some-
what symmetrical, like a palm tree, but only rarely that big. Underground, their roots radiate from the central stalk
or spread under the soil surface like grass roots. Dicots, on the other hand, often have complicated, asymmetrical
branching patterns, much like an oak tree or rose bush. Underground, they often have a woody taproot. It is easy to
pick out the differences between monocots and dicots. Go out and look at plants for fifteen to twenty minutes and
you will get the idea.
A newer term, eudicots, meaning “true dicots” is more relevant to classification than identification. Monocots
and dicots were previously considered two equal classes. However, it has been determined that monocots arose from
early dicot ancestors, as illustrated in the phylogenetic tree on the following page. That insight effectively split the
dicots into two separate groups: the basal dicots (also known as “pre-dicots”) before the split, and the eudicots after
the split. Fortunately, there is no need to distinguish between basal dicots and eudicots to identify a plant using the
keys in this book. For our purposes, there are only monocots and dicots.
Is your Flowering Plant a Dicot /Eudicot or a Monocot?

Dicots / Eudicots Monocots
-two seed leaves -one seed leaf
-netted veins in the leaves -parallel veins in the leaves
-usually tap-rooted -horizontal rootstalks
-usually complex branching -usually simple branching
-floral parts mostly in 4's and 5's -floral parts mostly in 3's
Dicots
200,000
1 species
{ worldwide Monocots
.- 60,000 species worldwide
15
Rose Phylogenetic Tree of the Flowering Plants

ui Rosales This phylogenetic tree illustrates the approximate relationship between most
inate oT 87-97 Pea of the orders of flowering plants (nonflowering plants are not included here).
page9s & ‘ Fabales Each order consists of one or more plant families. Orders in brown text are
pages 79 - 86 not included in this book. Orders in green text have at least some families
& ‘ included in this book.
Beech meh Parsley
Fagales Staff Tree Malpighi Apiales Teasel
pages 99 - 101 Celastrales Malpighiales pages Dipsacales
ff m pages 74-78 178 “ 181 fy pages
es 175-177
Senwwiiied ‘ Sy Wood Sorrel
pages 102 - 104 Oxalidales ,
page 73 Holly A Aster
Preis : Aquifoliales Asterales
a pes ae " Caltrop “ pages 161 - 174
ages - =
_ Zygophyllales oath
Mustard @ page 72 Ericales Gentian
Brassicales pepe aout aN pages Silk Tassel Gentianales
pages 108 - 111 : Myrtle 127 - 137 Garryales pages 138 - 141
¢, :
Myrtales f,
Geranium pages 69 - 71 py! v
Geraniales Mint
page 68 & Lamiales
=~ Grape
SING
Borage a zs
Saxifrage ¢ p) Vitales Bor — a)44 Nightshade
Saxifragales S page 67 > Pages ; Solanales
pages 62 - 66 % | re ( ma Bosweod pages 145 - 148
& Cornales
eS pages 124 - 126
Y Pink
Caryophyllales
Buttercup Cy pages 113 - 123
Ranunculales { Sandalwood
pages 55 - 61 siosll Santalales
eudicots ore Hage Lily

Sugarbush meiy
Proteales
Laurel Lethe He
Ceratophyllales as
192 - 195
Laurales page 54 gidicots Water Plantain Asparagus
page 53 ¢ Alismatales > Asparagales
c SY © pages 182 - 188 pages 196 - 203
YY oo Grass
Poales
4.
Magnolia BE, mo nocots pages 204 - 209
Magnoliales Pepper WS Sweet Flag O Palm yg Spiderwort
page 51 . page 182 page 189 m Pages 190 - 191

(a Austrobaileya Ginger
chose thet Austrobaileyales Zingiberales
Nymphaeales basal
page 50 dicots p Amborella
©2013 \
Thomas J. Elpel,
HOPS Press, LLC. A
ancestral flowering plant
16
From Simple to Specialized Flowers figwort

BAN. ae : Scrophularia (ify,
x many simple ee
pistils<< fewer stamens one compound pistil
multiple layers
Ranunculus of petals and > many stamens
oy sepals
: arrowhead
K Sagittaria
cA Simple Flowers Specialized Flowers ae,

sf) Flowers with ancestral characteristics |Specialized flowers typically have < liga
often have numerous separate floral reduced and consistent numbers of
parts spirally arranged around acone- _ floral parts arranged in concentric rings,
like recepticle. often fused together around a solitary
compound pistil. gentian
Gentiana
Specialized Flowers
Continued evolution of flowering plants led from simple flowers with numerous separate parts to specialized
flowers with fewer, often fused parts. Simple or “primitive” flowers usually have numerous sepals, petals, stamens,
and pistils, while more specialized flowers typically have reduced numbers of each, and the parts-are often fused
together. Modern plants evolved from now-extinct species, but some plants retained many ancestral characteristics,
as illustrated above. Notice how the arrowhead (Sagittaria) and buttercup (Ranunculus) are similar in appearance,
even though one is a monocot and the other is a dicot.
There are many variations in the continuum between simple and specialized flowers. Go outside and look at
a flower now. Are the sepals separate from one another or partially or wholly fused together? How about the petals?
Are there numerous stamens or only a few? Are they fused to each other or to the petals? Need a refresher on floral
terms? Turn to the inside front cover for a Quick Guide to Flower Terms.
Now look at the center of the flower. Are there multiple
Jerusalem artichoke
pistils or just one? If only one pistil, does itlook like several carpels Helianthus tuberosus
that have fused together to make a compound pistil? Not sure? Aster Family
Turn the page and read about Progressive Fusion ofthe Pistils. Some
plants have become so specialized that each flower produces only
one seed, as is the case with the Aster family.
Composite Flowers: Aster Family

Asters may seem like simple flowers with numerous parts,
but in fact they are highly specialized plants. Most families of
plants have floral parts in a similar order: a ring of sepals on the
outside, then a ring of petals, a ring of stamens, and the pistil or
pistils in the middle. Some parts may be missing, but the basic
order is always the same. The Aster family is a bit different. The
“sepals” are really bracts (modified leaves), and they often appear
in multiple layers. The “petals” make it look like one big flower,
but peek inside and you will discover a composite head of many _
very small flowers—dozens or even hundreds of them. In the
sunflower, for example, every seed is produced by one small flower \
within the larger head. These itsy-bitsy flowers each have tiny
sepals and petals—although these have been modified enough
that they have their own terminology. In fact, each of the main In the Aster
ale '
: : 5 amily, each tiny
“petals” is a flower too, often with stamens and a pistil. Read 4 V6, produces ¢
more about the Aster family on page 163. single seed.
17
Progressive Fusion of the Pistils

Making sense of :carpels, chambers, partition walls and placentation.
Most ofthe information on this page is not required to identify plants with Botany in a Day, but it is helpful for making
sense of why flowers look like they do, and it provides useful a useful background for reading other botanical texts.
From spore-bearing leaf to seed-producing carpel. A pistil with one carpel (unicarpellate), such as
_this pea, is considered a simple pistil.
One carpel can produce one or more seeds.
Flowers with more ancestral traits, such as these

buttercups, typically have numerous simple pistils
(apocarpus) attached to a cone-like receptacle.
leaf
modified curled
leaf
to
sporangia
protect leaf
fused
margins
fertilization
seed
and
development
inside
occur
This flower has More evolved flowers have reduced numbers

3 styles, showing of carpels (usually 2, 3, 4, or 5) fused into a
that there are compound pistil (syncarpous). The number
3 carpels in the of carpels is equal to the number of chambers,
ovary. | such as in these harebells:
Counting Carpels
lf the carpels are fused together, but
™ the styles are not, then the number of |
styles will indicate how many carpels
there are. ce Intrusion of the midrib into the
carpel may seem to double the
— lf the carpels and styles are fused, but —> number of chambers, as seen
the stigmas are not, then the number (1) in this flax:
of stigmas will indicate how many
carpels there are.
lf the carpels, styles, and stigmas are

all fused, then you may not be able to | Carpels can fuse together to form a
tell how many carpels there without | single chamber. It still has multiple carpels.
slicing across the ovary. iS
Counting Chambers
To count the number of chambers in Vimo The ovary of this saxifrage has two
it horizontally. Since the ovary of a CRS
flower is often very small, it may be @) : ( Se
2)
more convenient to slice across the | WE th
mature fruit. For example, this gourd
has three chambers.
About Placentation
. “ »
YY ~A flower with a compound pistil from

The placenta is the part of the ovary sg several carpels may eliminate all but
that produces ovules. Placentation 3) (2) one ovule through abortion and thus
describes that location: produce only one seed.
(1) axial (on the central axis)
(2) parietal (on the walls)
(3) free central (in the middle, without This page illustrates progressive fusion of the pistils,
the partition walls) but doesn't imply a linear evolutionary link between
(4) basal (attached to the base) the sample flowers.
Learning Plants by Families

Plant identification is all about patterns. Related plants usually have similar characteristics for identifica-
tion, and often similar uses. Learn a few common patterns, and you have a powerful tool for exploring the world of
plants. Instead of being clueless when you encounter a new species, you may recognize its family pattern. You may
not know its name, but recognizing the family pattern narrows down the range of possibilities when searching for
an identity. Moreover, you may know something about the plant's edible or medicinal properties, just by recognizing
which family it belongs to.
Start by learning patterns for the Mint, Parsley, Mustard, Pea, Lily, Grass, Rose, and Aster families. Knowing
these few basic patterns enables you to recognize the correct family for more than 45,000 species of plants worldwide.
Learn these patterns well, and you will have a good foundation for learning additional plant family patterns.
These eight families are the same ones I usually cover when I lead students on a beginning plant walk. The
names of the plants are irrelevant at this stage. A more essential goal is to recognize family patterns. When we come
to a new plant, I don’t tell my students what the plant is. I ask them. With minimal 1instruction, students can cor-
rectly identify the family for a great number of the plants we encounter.
I incorporated the same eight core families into a metaphorical story for the children’s book, Shanleya’s Quest:
A Botany Adventure for Kids Ages 9 to 99, which I often use in adult classes. In addition, I created the Patternsin
Plants Card Game, which also covers these families. In its briefest form, I can introduce all eight family patterns to
adults or kids in about two minutes. Then we start playing card games, including Memory, Slap Flower, Crazy Flowers,
Wildflower Rummy, and Shanleya’s Harvest, a game based on the story. Interestingly, kids who miss the introduction
can watch the game and quickly grasp the family patterns and game rules without any instruction whatsoever. Our
species naturally excels at pattern recognition!
Thirty-two of the fifty-two cards in the Patterns in Plants Card Game are
reproduced on the next two pages, accompanied by a brief description of each
family pattern. You can learn the patterns entirely from the text in this book, or
pick up a copy of the game (www.hopspress.com), if you want to practice pattern
recognition at a more intuitive level. Learn these eight families really well first.
You will then be properly prepared to learn additional plant family patterns, or
to key out an entirely unknown plant to learn its identity.
Identifying the Unknown

Family patterns are amazing tools for plant identification—right up until
you encounter a plant that doesn’t match any of the patterns you already know. If
you are comfortable with the core family patterns discussed above, then you may §
proceed to the next step and identify new plants using the keys included in this
book.
The keys will help you determine the correct family. Turn to that family in the book, and read the descrip-
tion to make sure it is correct. Look for possible matches in the included artwork. Space is limited, so you will likely
need to turn to another book for more pictures. Look for a local field guide that is organized according to families,
or check out our website for suggested companion books for your area.
If you need to positively identify a plant down to the species level, then pick up a local flora and use the
book Plant Identification Terminology by James and Melinda Harris to help guide you through the botanical key from
the family or genus down to the species. It is amazingly easy to key out flowers by using all of these books together,
compared to trying to do it using only a botanical key. Recommended books and hundreds of wildflower photos are
available through our web site at www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com.
19
Mint Family
The pattern for this family is Mint Family
square stalks, opposite leaves
square stalks, opposite leaves, and usually irregular flowers
aromatic. The stem is visibly four-sided.

The leaves come out of the stem oppo-
site from each other (just as your arms
do), rather than alternating up the stem.
These characteristics may be found ina
few non-Mint plants as well, but crush a
leaf and smell it. Does it smell aromatic,
Mints have square stalks with leaves
positioned opposite each other; most
. smell aromatic or “minty”
maybe even a little bit minty? Most
Mints are spicy but edible. Learn more Parsley Family
about the Mint family on page 157. The distinctive pattern for this family
is compound umbels. Notice how the indi-
Parsley Family
compound umbels
vidual stems of the flowerhead branch out
from a single point, much like the spokes of
an umbrella. This is called an umbel. In the
Parsley family there is also a smaller umbel at
the end of each main spoke. That makes it a
compound umbel.
The Parsley family includes some good
Parsleys have “
edibles, but also the most poisonous plants
one umbrella-like umbel supporting
several smaller umbels. in North America, so precise identification is
required. Learn more about the Parsley family
Mustard Family on page 179.
The unique pattern for this
family is 4 petals with 6 stamens—4 tall Mustard Family
and 2 short. lf you find a four-petaled mostly weedy annuals
(plants that live for only one year)
flower, look inside. Do you see four
tall stamens and two short stamens?
If so, then you have a member of
the Mustard family, which are all ed-
ible—at least to the degree that they
are palatable.
You can also learn to recog-
nize patterns in the arrangement of the
seed pods and the mustard-like smell
of the vegetation. Learn more about Pea Family
the Mustards on page 109. Take another look at the Mustard fam-
ily. See how the flowers are symmetrical? This is a
Pea Family regular flower. Pea flowers, on the other hand, are
banner, wings, and keel asymmetrical or irregular.
There are many families with irregular
flowers (including the Mints above), but the Pea
family has distinctive banner, wings, and keel petals
that are not found in other flowers. The big upper
petal is the banner, much like a big sign. The two
Peas have irregular (not symmetrical)
petals on the sides are the wings, much like the
flowers with a large “banner pet petal”
2 “wing petals”, plus a “keel” of 2 wings on a bird. This is technically a five-petaled
petals are often fused together.
flower, with the last two petals usually fused to-
gether to make the keel, much like the keel of a
boat. Learn more about the Pea family on page 79.
20
Lily Family and its Allies

The key pattern for the Lily Lily Family
family and its allies is 3 sepals and 3 | showy monocot flower:
uecy
petals, usually identical in size and color.
When investigating any flower,
always count from the outside towards
the middle: sepals, petals, stamens,
pistil(s). A flower may be missing parts,
but they are never out of order. Start- parted NO sepals aa ween
(same size and color)
ing on the outside of a Lily, you will | tities are shomy "monocot" flowers
bs oy Ae (look for parallel veins in the leaves)
notice two distinct layers: three colored —|_¥# fer! pars in mules of tres.
sepals, and three colored petals. Learn Grass Family
more about the Lily family and its allies The Lily and Grass families are mono-
starting on page 192.
cots, while all the other families featured on these
two pages are dicots. Turn back to page 15 for a
Grass Family refresher on monocots versus dicots.
wind-pollinated flowers
We don’t normally think of grasses as
being “flowers,” but they do have stamens and
a pistil like other flowers, and they form seeds
enclosed within the ovary. They just don’t look
like flowers because they are wind-pollinated and
thus have no need for showy sepals or petals.
A bract is a modified leaf.
Grasses are petalless, wind-pollinated
Grass family plants have hollow flower
monocot flowers with the stamens
and/or a pistil enclosed in bracts. stems with knee-like nodes or joints that help to
distinguish them from other grass-like plants.
Rose Family Learn more about the Grass family on page 207.
The pattern for this family is 5 petals
and numerous stamens, often with oval, serrated
leaves. There are many other families of plants Rose Family
5 petals, lots of stamens
with five-petaled flowers as well, some with \ numerous
DS, stamens
separate petals and some with their petals
fused together. Each five-petaled family has a
unique pattern that distinguishes it from all
other families with five-petaled flowers.
In the Rose family, the petals are
separate, and the numerous stamens are dis- YQ
Roses have 5 petals, typically with

tinctive. At the center of the flower you will numerous stamens and a fuzzy center
made of many partially fused pistils.
often see a fuzzy center consisting of partially

fused pistils. This family includes many edible Aster Family
fruits. Learn more about the Rose family on Plants of the Aster family have unique
page 91. composite flowerheads. One flowerhead is made
up of many smaller flowers, each attached to a
Aster Family pitted disk, like flowers planted in a garden. In
ee ping a sunflower, for example, each sunflower seed
ray Tlowers . . cous 5 *
disc flowers + is Ppproduced byy an individual flower within the
-a larger flowerhead.
Ph
NAS
igh The flowers in the middle are called disk
flowers, while the big “petals” around the outside
are also considered individual flowers, known
as ray flowers. A flowerhead may include disk
flowers and/or ray flowers. Learn more about
Asters have “composite” flowerheads
with multiple small flowers attached
to a pitted disc,
the Aster family on page 163.
|
Problems in Taxonomic Paradise

The benefit to using botanical names versus common names is that each plant theoretically has only one bo-
tanical name, which is used worldwide in every country and language, while common names can vary tremendously J
from region to region. However, as taxonomists wrangle over the relationships between plants they frequently re-
name a species or an entire genus, tribe, subfamily, family, or order. And with new evidence, they may even abandon
a new name and revert to a historic name. The end result is a more accurate classification system, but at the cost of
muddying up the literature with old and new names that don’t obviously connect with one another.
For example, the old Lily family was a catch-all for similar flowers that botanists knew were not closely re-
lated, but couldn't devise a clear-cut system to accurately split them into more appropriate families. Many different
families have been proposed in the past, breaking the Lily family into as many as seventy new families. These families
are put into circulation, listed in books, and referenced by authors. Lily family plants have been shuffled back and
forth between different proposed families so many times that a reader might find a plant listed in five different fami-
lies in five different books! The APG system clarifies these old relationships by providing yet another classification
scheme, which retains some previously proposed families, rejects others, and redefines what goes into each family.
The same process happens at the genus level as well. For example, there were once about twenty species of
death camas classified as Zigadenus of the Lily family. However, based on new evidence, all but Z. glaberrimus have
been shuffled to other genera, spread out across Amianthium, Anticlea, Stenanthium, and Toxicoscordion. Meanwhile,
other plants in these genera were shuffled around as well, rototilling each genera so thoroughly that it can be nearly
impossible to sort it all out when researching a particular plant. And all of the above genera have been segregated
from the Lily family into the Bunchflower Family.
The meadow death camas, common in the West, is presently known as Toxicoscordion venenosum. But it has
also been knownas 7. arenicola, T. salinum, Zigadenus diegoensis, Z. salinus, and Z. venenosus. Strangely, ’'ve been
writing, teaching, and talking about several different species of Zigadenus my
entire life, only to discover that, due to taxonomic slight-of-hand, Zigadenus
no longer exists in Montana and I’ve never even seen one! To find a true
Zigadenus, | would have to travel to the southeast and look for the sandbog
death camas, Z. glaberrimus.
This name game has been in play ever since Linnaeus established
the binomial system. Historically, the changes came along slow enough that
people could adapt, just as people adapted to Saint Petersburg in Russia be-
ing renamed Petrograd in 1914, Leningrad in 1924, and back to Saint Pe-
tersburg in 1991. But it could lead to confusion if you thought these were
three separate cities, or if you tried to find Petrograd on a modern map after
reading a 1920 book about Russia.
For taxonomists, the ultimate goal is to classify every plant according
to clean monophyletic clades, in which each group contains all the descen-
dents from an arbitrary common ancestor and none from parallel lines. As a
result, taxonomists are reclassifying and renaming thousands of plants all at
sandbog deathcamas the same time. Some plants have cycled through as many as ten different bo-
Zigadenus glaberrimus tanical names. The end product may be more taxonomically accurate, but at
pMpBunchflower Family the risk of making botanical names so confusing as to render them obsolete.
One can only hope that researchers will ultimately arrive at a final consensus
for all life on earth, so that future generations won't be faced with different
names in every reference guide!
22
How to Use the Keys
How to Use the Keys

1. What major group does your specimen belong to?
The Botany in a Day Tutorial provided an overview of the major groupings within the plant kingdom, in-
cluding: nonvascular spore plants, vascular spore plants, naked seeds, and flowering plants. (For review, turn to the
illustration on page 14.) After reading the tutorial, you should be able to pick up virtually any plant and make an
educated guess as to which of these groups it belongs. Coverage of nonvascular spore plants is limited to the text on
page 8. For more information on vascular spore plants, such as ferns and horsetails, turn to pages 38 to 45. And for
naked seeds, such as the Pine family, see pages 46 to 49. If your sample is a flowering plant then you will need to
continue through the keys to narrow down the choices.
2. Is your plant a monocot or a dicot?

If your sample is a flowering plant, then you need to determine whether it is a monocot or a dicot/eudicot.
Remember, monocot plants usually have parallel-veined leaves and flower parts mostly in threes. Dicot plants mostly
have net-veined leaves and parts in fours and fives. For a refresher on the differences between monocots and dicots,
or if you have an unusual specimen about which you are uncertain, then return to page 15 for review.
If your plant is a monocot, then turn to the Key to Monocot Flowers on page 34. Monocot plants with showy
flowers are covered in the top section. Monocots with grassy flowers are in the bottom section. If you are uncertain
which section yours belongs to, then try both. It never hurts to come up with more than one answer. Turn to the
family descriptions in the book and read about each one in greater detail to determine which family is the best match.
On the other hand, if your plant is a dicot then continue reading here.
3. Is your dicot plant a member of the Aster family?

The Aster family is the largest family of flowering plants in the northern latitudes. As a matter of probability,
it makes sense to determine whether or not your sample is a member of the Aster family before checking any others.
But more than that, Asters can be misleading with their composite flowers. Aster flowers superficially seem to have
numerous sepals or numerous petals, but they are really composed of many smaller flowers with parts in fives. You
must sort out all members of the Aster family before proceeding through the dicot keys. For a thorough refresher
on the Aster family, see page 163. Also familiarize yourself with the similar-looking Teasel family. If your plant is
definitely mot a member of the Aster family, then continue reading here. .
4. Profile your dicot flower and key it out.

If your dicot flower is not a member of the Aster family then turn the page and
work up a complete profile on your flower to help guide you through the dicot keys that
follow. You may not be able to fill in every blank on the form, but do the best you can.
Then key out your flower to determine which family it belongs to.
The keys in this book are, to the greatest extent possible, based on field character-
istics that can be observed without a.razor blade to dissect the flowers or a microscope to
see the parts. Most of the required features can be seen entirely with the unaided eye, or
with regular reading glasses. However, a hand lens or “loupe” will be required for keying
out some of the smaller flowers. Loupes and recommended companion books are available
through www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com.
via)
Botany in a Day
Profile your flower Before you use the Keys

Practice keying out the large flowers first, then try smaller and smaller samples.
Start at the bottom of the page and work your way up, filling in the blanks. Skip
sections that do not apply, or that you do not know how to answer. Remember to
look at the individual flower. A clover blossom, for example, is a cluster of dozens
of small, irregular flowers.
Always start on the outside of a flower and work inward. The first layer will be
Always count
the sepals (do not confuse them with bracts that are present in some species.),
parts from the
then the petals, stamens, and pistil(s). Some parts may be missing, but all parts
outside to the
that are present will be in that order. If you find a flower without green sepals, then
inside: sepals,
look close and you may find two overlapping rings of "petals." The outer ring
petals, stamens
consists of colored sepals that look like petals. If there is only one ring then you
and pistil.
have a flower with sepals, but no petals, even if the sepals are colored like petals.
(There are a few exceptions, but these rules work most of the time.) These are
important distinctions for properly using the keys. A flower with 4 colored sepals
and no actual petals would be found in the Key to Regular Dicot Flowers withO,
3, or 6 petals, and not in the other keys.
Be sure to turn to the inside front and back covers

for additional help on flower and leaf terms.
2 styles suggest style with 4 stigmas

that there are 2 suggests that there
carpels in ovary are 4 carpels in ovary
Pistils—how many: . Positioned superior or inferior or part way:

Styles—how many: _ If 1 style, then how many stigma lobes:
Carpels—how many: . (Count styles or stigmas—see inside frontcover.)
superior ovary = Chambers—how many: . (Slice across ovary and look for partition walls.) inferior ovary
— = Tip: Slice across a mature fruit and you can count the chambers (an apple has five.) begs nied
ye —NMost information above is not required for this key, but it is good practice anyway. i 1a
Stamens—Separate or fused to each other or to the petals or pistil: ~ ig

: / How many: . When there are 11 or more stamens, enter "numerous".
\ P —s
Selects, Se “ies alternate or hesaane Hs the petals: aaa ; ms BL peys g aiiticans
alice ome stamens may be confusing to recognize if they have lost their anthers. fused with petals
from petals (and alternate)
separate petals | Petals—separate or united: . How many: .Color: united pare

\ Petals may be united only at the base (try lifting them out together) or absent.
Caution: some flowers have colored petal-like sepals.
Sepals—separate or united: . How many: Color:

Sepals may be united only at the base, or difficult to determine, or absent.
x Caution: green or colored bracts (modified leaves) may be mistaken for sepals.
separate sepals ~ Also, some flowers lose their sepals upon opening.
Regular or irregular flowers: . Bisexual or unisexual:
—Start at the bottom and work up the page.—
Botany in a Day
bisexual flower has This page may be photocopied for classroom use.
stamens and pistil www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com
24
How to Use the Keys
Choose the Correct Dicot Key

Once you have profiled your dicot flower in detail, then identify it through the following keys. These keys
incorporate the primary patterns for each family in this book. Color illustrations are intentionally excluded from
these keys to help you focus on the flower details without being falsely swayed by flowers of a simliar hue. With these
keys you can successfully identify thousands of plants across North America and around the world, at least down to
the family level.
Keep in mind, however, that there are always exceptions. For example, almost all 2,000 species of the Pink
family have 5 petals. But there are a few anomalies with only 4 petals, which are not covered in the keys. Some fami-
lies have almost no exceptions, while others have numerous exceptions. It is impractical to include all exceptions in
a key like this, although I have included as many as practical. Several families are included in more than one key. If
you know a family well, then there is a good chance you will recognize an anomaly or exception from that family
when you encounter it. The vegetation and flowers may share similarities with other plants of the family, even if the
flower configuration doesn’t fit the rules.
This text covers most plant families across the frost belt of North America and the majority of families farther
south. That leaves a few exceptions in the North and more in the South that are not included in the book or keys.
Now turn to the appropriate key on the next few pages and search the text and illustrations for the closest
match you can find. Not every species is illustrated in the keys, while other families include a number of illustrations
to show the range of possibilities. Your flower may not exactly match the samples shown, but pick the family that
seems like the closest match. Turn to the page indicated and carefully read the family description to see if your flower
fits in that family. Always double-check your conclusions. You may need to go back to the key and pick another
family with similar characteristics. It is easy to make a plant “fit” into a family when trying to identity it.
Note that shrubs and trees without showy flowers (sepals and petals are absent, or small and green) are
included only in the Key to Dicot Trees and Shrubs by Their Fruits.
After identifying the correct family, check the illustrations on the family page to look for a possible match.
You can also cross-reference with other plant identification books organized by families to help narrow the identity
down to the correct genus and species. In addition, try looking up botanical names in a Google image search to check
your work.
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with Numerous Petals
(Numerous means 11 or more.)
Water Lily Family
Caution: Aster family plants are not included here. See instructions on page 23.
Trees with large, showy flowers. Numerous stamens and pistils. Large flowers with cone-like fruits. ..........c.:0000 Magnolia: 52
Numerous sepals, petals, and stamens. Succulent plants with spines. Desert habitats. .......c.sssssesesessecseeseessesenseess Cactus: 123
2 sepals. Numerous petals and stamens. Succulent plants, often in intense sunlight. Lewisia. .....cssseee Miner's Lettuce: 120
3 to 15 sepals. 0 to 23 petals. Numerous stamens. 3+ simple pistils, often with hooked tips. .......ssesseseseneeeeees Buttercup: 55
4 or 5 sepals. Numerous petals and stamens. Aquatic plants, usually with broad, floating leaves. 0.0... Water Lily: 50
30 sepals. 30 petals. 30 or 60 stamens. Succulent plants, usually in grainy soil. ......c.ceeeecseseseseseseseseesseeeeeeeeeees Stonecrop: 64
Note: Many cultivated plants with numerous petals were bred from species that originally had 5 separate petals, par-
ticularly from the Buttercup, Rose, Pink, Geranium, Mallow, and Miner’s Lettuce families. If you have a cultivated
plant with numerous separate petals, try keying it out as a five-petaled flower.
2D
Key to Irregular Dicot Flowers
(Including regular flowers with spurs.)
Milkwort Family
Violet Family
Figwort / Lopseed /
Plantain Families
Honeysuckle
Family
' Harebell / Lobelia Family
(could be mistaken for Aster family)
Trees with large palmate leaves. 5 united sepals. 4 or 5 separate petals. Big seeds with leathery skins..............++++ Soapberry: 102
Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate leaves. 5 sepals. 5 petals (bottom 2 may be united). Pea-like pods. .........:.:esesesee Pea: 79
Trees, shrubs, or herbs with opposite or whorled leaves. Slightly irregular flowers. 5 petals. 4 stamens. .............+0+ Verbena: 160
Shrubs or vines with opposite leaves. Tubular flowers in pairs. Pithy stems. .........c:csscescssesesesesesseseseeneesesenenees Honeysuckle: 176
Figwort-like flowers: 5 united petals (rarely 4), usually with 2 petal lobes up and 3 down. (See samples.)
Figwort-like flowers oni short platits lacking clilorophayll ....-..:..scacecssensaiacibgneohsentnsssvesennnsneovacsbebaeeentetaeebivatNs Broomrape: 154
Figwort-like flowers of moist or aquatic habitats, with sticky leaves or bladders for trapping insects. ..........+++- Bladderwort: 153
Figwort-like flowers with alpexnate leaves anid miillcy spe us.scccsssessvessnonadoansnnessnssoaasndvinashestvesanvbnescidvensssevtiiiie
Cerone Lobelia: 161
Figwort-like flowers. Square stems and opposite leaves. Often aromatic.....ccccscsssscsesesesesesssesesesessnenensssnersrscseecseaceeseaees Mint: 157
Figwort-like flowers with 3 or 5 unequal sepals; one forms a spur. 2 united petals + 3 separate... Touch-Me-Not: 127
Other figwort-like flowers: Compare the Figwort, Lopseed, Plantain, Broomrape, and Acanthus families. ............ Figwort: 150
If none of the above, then continue here:

Sepals and petals present or absent, separate, some with spurs. Numerous stamens. 3+ pistils........0c:csccesceseesees Buttercup: 55
2 small sepals. 4 petals (2 outside and 2 inside). 4 or 6 stamens. Leaves altermate...........sccscssesesserseseeseesceaeeeeeeeeeens Fumitory: 61
3 outer sepals and 2 inner petal-like sepals. 3 (or 5) petals. 8 stamens (or less), fused to petals. .........:cssseeseseeeeeeees Milkwort: 86
3 united sepals, 0 petals. Sepals fused to make curved tube like a smoker’s pipe. Small plants. .............0+ Dutchman's Pipe: 51
5 separate sepals and petals. Petals in two pairs plus bigger bottom petal, sometimes with a SpUL. ........csceseseeeneeeneeees Violet: 75
Small, slightly irregular flowers in dense heads resembling the Aster family. Opposite leaves. ...........:ceccseeesseseeeeseeees Teasel: 175
26
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 0, 3, or 6 Petals
(Some have colored bracts or sepals that look like petals.)
i Four O'Clock
# Family
MW
( ;
Shrubs or trees (includes some herbs or vines with woody stems, which may be repeated below):
Leaves opposite (rarely alternate). Petal-like bracts beneath clusters of small flowers. Fruit is a drupe..........s0 Dogwood: 124
Leaves opposite or alternate. Sometimes thorny. Small flowers, often showy clusters. 3-celled fruit..........cceeee Buckthorn: 96
Leaves opposite or alternate. Usually silvery. Sometimes thorny. 5 colored sepals. 0 petals. Fruit is a drupe. .......... Oleaster: 97
Leaves alternate. 3 sepals. 3+ petals. Numerous stamens and pistils. Large flowers with cone-like fruits. ............+ Magnolia: 52
Leaves alternate and aromatic. 6 (rarely 4) sepals: greenish yellow, yellow, or white. 0 petals.....cc.scccssecssesseesseessesseeses Laurel: 53
Leaves alternate and sometimes pinnate. Evergreen. Sepals and petals in layers of 3, often as 3 + 3. + 3+ 3.cccesee Barberry: 58
Feaves alternate and-often trifoliate or pinnate. 3 sepals..0 or 3°petals: Fruit is a drupe. \-.-...mc---tezecemetnneeee Cashew: 104
Leaves alternate and needle-like. Often evergreen. 3 bracts. 3 sepals. 3 petals. Fruit is a drupe or berry ............ Crowberry: 133
Note: Shrubs and trees without showy flowers (sepals and petals are absent, or small and green) are included only in the
Key to Dicot Trees and Shrubs by Their Fruits.)
Herbs with 3 or 6 petals:

Aquatic herbs with: large floating leaves:'3 sepals: 3 petals.'S,'G, 12, or 18 stamens. ...scc.--2t-geces--sccpceeeeee cece eres Fanwort: 50
Herbs without chlorophyll. 2-6 sepals. 3-6 petals (separate or united). 6-12 staMeNs..........cccseseseesesereeeeeeees Indian Pipe: 137
Succulent herbs. Often in grainy soil. 2 sepals. 4-6 petals and 1x or 2x as many stamens............. Miner’s Lettuce/Purslane: 120
Leaves alternate. Sap often milky. 2-3 sepals (may fall early). 6 petals (usually 4, 8, or 12).....csccssccessesseseeeteteseeseesees Poppy: 60
Leaves 'alteinate or basal. Sepals and petals, in layers-of 3, often as 3+ 3° 3°75 .c..c.sccesescnides cederscovenstevassoaiinesecndeps Barberry: 58
Leaves alternate (rarely opposite). 3-15 sepals. 0-23 petals. Numerous stamens. 3+ simple pistils. ............:0c0000 Buttercup: 55
Leaves opposite or whorled. 4, 6, or 8 sepals and petals and 2x as many stamens in 2 sets, short and tall............ Loosestrife: 69
Herbs with colored bracts and 0 petals:

Colored bracts beneath flowers. 0 or 5 sepals. Milky juice. Mostly found in warm climates........ccccsesseseseeeeseseeseees Spurge: 77
Dense flower clusters. Each flower enclosed by 3 green or colored, often pointy bracts. 4-5 sepals.........cccce Amaranth: 117
Herbs with colored sepals and 0 petals:

3 united sepals, tubular. 12 stamens (rarely 6 to 36). 6-celled ovary. Often in moist forests. ......-.+1eeeee Dutchman's Pipe: 51
3-5 separate or united sepals with an equal number of stamens, aligned with the sepals. Small'plants............. Sandalwood: 112
3-6'separate sepals, sometimes as 3+3. 3 to 9 stamens. Seeds’3-sided OF lens-shapied...£0......-..scqrtssbos
eeteers Buckwheat: 113
3 to 15 sepals. Numerous stamens. 3+ simple pistils, often with hooked tips. ......-sssessseesesseeseseeseeeseeseeeseeneenees Buttercup: 55
4 separate sepals. 2-12 stamens. 1-3 simple pistils. Small, white flowers. Sanguisorbd. .....s.ccsesseccecsissecseeseeseeseeseeseeneenes Rose: 91
5 united sepals (rarely 3 to 10). Tubular flowers. May have colored bracts. Mostly desert habitats. .............. Four-O’Clock: 122
Herbs or vines with greenish flowers and 0 petals: ‘

Aquatic plants with finely divided leaves in the water, but entire or whole leaves above water. ......-.sssseesseen Water Milfoil: 63
Aquatic plants, often erect, with whorled leaves. Only 1 stamen and one pistil. Hippuris. ......eseseeeeos Water Starwort: 152
Submerged aquatic plants with whorled leaves. Numerous stamens. Flowers surrounded Dy Dracts. sinters ters Hornwort: 54
Plants parasitic on tree branches. Fruit is a berry .....ssscsesessessesecseeseesteenesseesessseeseseesesseesesucnnseneeneeneeneensenees Sandalwood: 112
Palmate or pinnate leaves. Coarse, somewhat aromatic vegetation. Separate male and female Howers. ..........-ssss0 Hemp: 89
Squarish stalks and opposite leaves, usually with stinging hairs. ..........ssssssesssseesssecseseseeeneecnneetnneeeneeanesnny Stinging Nettle: 90
Usually disturbed or alkaline soils. Flowers globular or pointy. .......sssssssesssesseeseeseesseesssesneeseeneennecnneaneeaneeneeneeey Amaranth: 117
27
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 4 Petals
(Includes some flowers with 6, 8, or 12 petals.)
Poppy Family Mustard Family
Hydrangea
Family
Gentian Heath
Madder Family ’ Family Harebell Family Family
Leaves opposite and rarely pinnate. Sometimes squarish stems. United petals. Usually 2 stamens. ........cesssesseeseeeee Olive: 149
Leaves opposite and palmate or rarely pinnate. Separate petals. Fruit is a pair of winged seeds. Acer. .....s.ss:s000++ Soapberry: 103
Leaves opposite. Often pithy stems. Separate petals. 4+ stamens. Fruit a capsule. ........ccscccesssesesersesesrseseeeeeeeeees Hydrangea: 125
Leaves opposite (rarely alternate). Often showy bracts. Petals separate. Fruit a berry-like drupe. ........:scsceseseesesees Dogwood: 124
Leaves opposite. United petals, often with pointy tips. 4-5 stamens. 2- or 4-chambered Ovary. ......sssesessseeesesenesenens Madder: 138
Leaves opposite or alternate. Sometimes thorny. Small flowers, often in showy clusters. 3-celled fruit..........::0+4 Buckthorn: 96
Leaves alternate and palmate. Sometimes thorny. 4 sepals. 4 petals. 5 stamens. Fruit is a berry. .......:cscescseeseeeeses Gooseberry: 65
Leaves alternate or basal. Evergreen. 4-5 sepals. 4-5 petals. 2x as many stamens. Fruit is a capsule. ........:ssscssesesseeeees Pyrola: 136
Leaves alternate. Often evergreen. Mostly bell-shaped flowers, petals united. Fruit a capsule or berry, .......::.cssee00e Heath: 132
Leaves alternate. Separate petals, often ribbon-like. 4 stamens. Woody capsules with bony seeds. ........::2:20++0++ Witch Hazel: 62
Herbs with distinctive vegetative features:

RE Soeeties WELERRHAE CRUISE ooo as cpt ec cscesrg cone svaue ch nites oudiaio sens dsdunpuswaxantssusnesuntespennave
iamertrappaiiameeeE Indian Pipe: 137
Aquatic plants with finely divided leaves under water, but whole leaves above Water. ........::ssssssssesseseeseerseeseees Water Milfoil: 63
Vining plants with alternate leaves, tendrils, and clusters of berries. Petals may be fused at tips and fall away............. Grape: 67
Bristly, hairy, or sticky plants. Numerous stamens. Fruit a capsule. Arid or warm habitats. ..........ccsssscssessseeeeeseeeenees Loasa: 126
Continue here if none of the above fit your sample:

Herbs that have flowers with 4 united petals:
Leaves opposite. Sepals united or separate. Flowers in dense heads resembling the Aster family. ...........::sceseseeseeeeeee Teasel: 175
Leaves opposite or whorled. Stamens fused to the petals. Bell- or dish-shaped flowers. ........:.::seseseseseseseeeeeeeeeesee Gentian: 139
Leaves opposite or whorled. 4-5 sepals. Petals often pointy tips. 4-5 stamens. 2- or 4-chambered ovary. .........++++++- Madder: 138
Leaves opposite or alternate. Sepals united. Flowers tubular with dish-shaped faces. .........:ssssscssesesesesesseseseseseeacseaesees Phlox: 128
Leaves alternate. May have milky juice. Sepals separate. Triodanis spp. (not COMMON). ......s.sseseeseseeceseeseeteeneeeteeees Harebell: 161
Leaves alternate, basal or whorled. Stamens aligned opposite petals. rruit is a capsule. Moist habitats. ..............+- Primrose: 130
Leaves are basal with parallel-like veins. Sepals united. Small greenish flowers on slender spike............ssesseseeeees Plantain: 150
Herbs that have flowers with 4 separate petals:

Leaves opposite. 4 sepals. 4 petals. 10+ stamens. Usually yellow petals, often with red-orange spots. .......... Saint Johnswort: 74
Leaves opposite or whorled. 4, 6, or 8 sepals and petals and 2x as many stamens in 2 sets, short and tall............ Loosestrife: 69
Leaves opposite or alternate. Succulent. 2 sepals. 4-6 petals and 1x or 2x as many stamens.......... Miner’s Lettuce/Purslane: 120
Leaves opposite or alternate. Succulent. 4 sepals. 4 petals and 1x or 2x as many stamens. 3+ pistils. ..........:0e000 Stonecrop: 64
Leaves opposite, alternate, or basal. 4 sepals and petals. 4 or 8 stamens. Often a 4-parted stigma.............. Evening Primrose: 70
Leaves alternate. Bristly, hairy, or sticky plants. Numerous stamens. Fruit a capsule. Arid habitats...........:.seseseeseeees Loasa: 126
Leaves alternate. Milky sap. 2-3 sepals (may fall early). 4-12 petals. Numerous stamens. Arid habitats. «00.0... Poppy: 60
Leaves alternate. Often weedy annual plants. 4 sepals. 4 petals. 6 stamens: 4 tall and 2 Short. ........scsesssesseeesesenees Mustard: 109
Leaves alternate and 3-parted or palmately divided. 4 sepals. 4 petals. 4+ stamens. Pea-like pods...........::seesee0e Beeplant: 108
Leaves alternate. 8-10 sepals. 8-10 petals. Numerous stamens and pistils. Dryas. ......sssssssssssesesersesesssessesescisesssesssseacaees Rose: 91
Leaves alternate, basal, or whorled. Stamens aligned opposite petals. Fruit is a capsule. Moist habitats. ............... Primrose: 130
Leaves alternate or basal. Evergreen. 4-5 sepals. 4-5 petals. 2x as many stamens. Fruit is a capsule. .........ssssssssseseseee Pyrola: 136
28
~ Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 5 United Petals
(Includes some flowers with 10 petals.)
Gentian RY,
Family ' Gourd Family Borage Family
/ Waterleaf
Leaves.opposite,.o-tunited sepals. 5 united petals: Usually: 2 stamens. »,...0c2-«aceceed-ds-agrudosseaiete Sak:«pactaece ee eee ere ee Olive: 149
Leaves opposite. Flowers/berries in pairs or clusters. Pithy stems. .........ccssscssssessseseseseseseesesssescscneneseees Honeysuckle/Adoxa: 176
heayeomap paste OF whotled 1,Milley Sai0 ena oc <i<d-s.concer vs tea pce foes tart hee och cia e-Meet Dogbane/Milkweed: 140
Leaves alternate. Fruit a tomato-like berry or 2-chambered capsule with numerous seeds. ..........s.s:ssssseesereneees Nightshade: 146
Leaves alternate and often evergreen. Mostly bell-shaped flowers. Fruit a capsule or berry. ........csssssescesseeeseeeseeneneeee Heath: 132
Herbs with distinctive vegetative features:

Vining plants with alternate leaves, tendrils, and clusters of berries. Petals may be fused at tips and fall away............. Grape: 67
Vining plants with alternate leaves, tendrils, and large 3- or 4-chambered fruits. .....0...c.ccsesssessssesseeseestseeeseseseseseneeees Gourd: 98
Vining plants with alternate leaves and often milky juice. Star pattern in flowers (see picture)... Morning-Glory: 145
Herbs (rarely vines) with milky sap. Leaves opposite or whorled. ..........ccssssssssesssesssseseesecsenesensceeeeeees Dogbane/Milkweed: 140
Forest plants without chlorophyll. Leaves reduced to bract-like scales. ........ccssssssssssssesssesesesesesesessseenessesnesenenees Indian Pipe: 137
Marshland plants, Petals fizzy, or iguprinted: with a star-like patterns a-sss.. scan-n0-c-dacacestaxiap/scutosnuachseve>cadaeesaiaead Buckbean: 162
No sepals. Small flowers, often with spur. Leaves opposite and/or basal. Aromatic r00ts. .....s.ssssesesessseseseseeeeseseseees Valerian: 175

Sepals united (Sepals may be very small, united only at the base, or difficult to determine. Cross-check below.):
Beayes opposite Powers! Depres 10 Piatt. 6. i<<onsscracnsnensieen snaeiodonddaetv ane aceeskcataeace po Mee satc aie hd vente Peaucnc tpene oan Honeysuckle: 176
Leaves opposite or whorled. Small flowers with 4 stamens. Slightly irregulat............ccsecsseeseseseeseteeeteteteeteeeteneneneens Verbena: 160
Leaves opposite or alternate and usually narrow. Tubular flowers with a flat face. Mostly in western states...........+++ Phlox: 128
Leaves alternate. Usually 2-chambered ovary matures as capsule or tomato-like berry with many seeds. .......... Nightshade: 146
Leaves alternate, basal, or whorled. Stamens aligned opposite petals. Fruit is a capsule. Moist habitats. ............... Primrose: 130
Leaves usually alternate. Often hairy plants. Long stamens. Flower spike may curl like a scorpion tail................ Waterleaf: 144
Sepals separate (Sepals may be very small, or difficult to determine. Cross-check with section above.):
Leaves alternate. Bell-shaped flowers with five stamens. Usually milky juice. ........c.ccsssesseseeetenseresesseneeseneneensneenens Harebell: 161
Leaves alternate. Usually hairy plants. Ovary matures into 4 separate nutlets (less by abortion). .......ssssesseeeeeseneees Borage: 142
Leaves alternate. Fruit a tomato-like berry or 2-celled capsule with numerous seeds. .........:csceseseeeesseeseseseeeseees Nightshade: 146
Leaves alternate, basal, or whorled. Stamens aligned opposite petals. Fruit is a capsule. Moist soil. .........::0ese00 Primrose: 130
Leaves opposite. Flowers slightly irregular, in dense heads resembling the Aster family..........s.sssessssssecsessseeseeseessessses Teasel: 175
Leaves opposite or whorled. Stamens fused to the petals. Bell- or dish-shaped flowers. .......-ssssssssseseeeseereestesseeneen Gentian: 139
Leaves opposite or whorled. 4-5 sepals. 4-5 petals, often with pointy tips. 2- or 4-chambered ovary. ......--ssesssesese: Madder: 138
22
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 5 Separate Petals
—A mature fruit may be required. Try looking for the remains of last year’s fruits on branches or on the ground.
Leaves opposite. Often pithy stems. 5 or 10 united sepals. 5 or 10 separate petals. Fruit a capsule..........:0+00+ Hydrangea: 125
Leaves opposite (rarely alternate). Small sepals. Often large showy bracts. Fruit is a berry-like drupe... Dogwood: 124
Leaves opposite and pinnate. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5, 10, or 15 stamens. 5-chambered ovary. Warm climates...........+.++ Caltrop: 72
Leaves opposite and palmate or rarely pinnate. Fruit is a pair of winged seeds. Acer. ..c.cssscssssssssssesseeeesceesseesesees Soapberry: 102
Leaves opposite or alternate. Sometimes thorny. Small flowers, often in showy clusters. 3-celled fruit. .......:0+0 Buckthorn: 96
Leaves alternate and palmately lobed. Ovary inferior. Fruit is a berry with vertical lines. ....cccccscessssesseeeseeseeeeeees Gooseberry: 65
Leaves alternate and often palmately lobed. Slimy juice. Numerous stamens fused in a COLUMNL.......:.ccceereeeeseseees Mallow: 105
Leaves alternate and palmately or pinnately divided. Ovary inferior. Berries in umbels, heads, or spikes..........-+++: Ginseng: 178
Leaves alternate and trifoliate or pinnately divided. Ovary superior. Fruit is a drupe, often in clusters. .........+.++000+ Cashew: 104
Leaves alternate, sometimes pinnately divided (rarely palmately lobed or divided) and often oval and serrated.
5; 10, or 15+ stamens. I to numerous pistils: Fruits extrémely variable. ..,..:.ssssersesosssnesraeosseveteansdesssheralilnas
tareRose: 91
Leaves alternate or basal. Evergreen. 4-5 sepals. 4-5 petals. 2x as many stamens, Fruit is a capsule. ........::ssseesesesees Pyrola: 136
Leaves alternate. Flower cluster attached to slender bract. 5 sepals. 5 petals. Numerous stamens.........:seeseseseees Basswood: 107
Leaves alternate. Large flowers with cone-like fruits. 3 sepals. 3+ petals. Numerous stamens and pistils. ......../ s.144.e Magnolia: 52
Leaves alternate. Usually small flowers in dense clusters. 10+ stamens. Fruit is a pea-like pod. .....cccccsesssseseeeeseeeees Mimosa: 80
Leaves alternate. Fruit a woody capsule with bony seeds. 5 basally united sepals. 5 narrow petals. .......::::se000 Witch Hazel: 62
—Be sure to read up on the Rose family, since it is challenging to write an adequate description here.—
Plants with distinctive vegetative features:

Aquatic plants with broad, floating leaves. 4 or 5 sepals, 5, 15 or more petals. Numerous stamens. .......:::-s+e+e1000 Water Lily: 50
Colored bracts beneath flowers. Milky juice. Mostly found in warm climates. .......ccsccscesessessessescsecsecsseeseessseeseesneseees Spurge: 77
Vining plants with alternate leaves, tendrils, forming clusters of berries. Petals may fall upon opening, .........:.:0+000+ Grape: 67
Succulent plants. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5 or 10 stamens. 3 or more simple pistils. Usually in grainy soil. ..........:0000++ Stonecrop: 64
Succulent plants. 2 sepals. 4-6 petals and 1 or 2x as Mamy StaMENS. ........cccceeseseeseeeeseseseeseeenseees Miner’s Lettuce/Purslane: 120
Bristly, hairy, or sticky plants. 5 sepals. 5 or 10 petals. Numerous stamens. Fruit a capsule. Arid habitats. .............4+. Loasa: 126
3-parted shamrock leaf. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 10 stamens. 5-celled ovary. Favors moist soils. .....42:cccssscsseseesseeeeeesees Woodsorrel: 73
Leaves tubular and vase-like to trap and drown insects. 4-5 sepals. 5 petals. Numerous stamens..........:s00000+ Pitcher Plant: 129
Leaves basal and sticky to trap insects. Moist forests. 4-5 sepals. 4-5 petals. 5 or 10-20 stamens. ........::csceseeeeseeeees Sundew: 116

Leaves opposite and pinnately divided. Warm climates. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5, 10, or 15 stamens..........scsccesseseeeeseeees Caltrop: 72
Leaves opposite. 5 sepals, united or separate. 5 petals. 5 or 10 stamens. 2-5 styles. Petal ends are usually split. ........... Pink: 114
Leaves opposite. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 10+ stamens. Usually yellow petals, often with red-orange spots. .......-.... St. John’s Wort: 74
Leaves opposite or alternate. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5 or 10 stamens. Capsule splits like the sections of an orange. .........:...+- Flax: 78
Leaves opposite or alternate and palmately lobed or pinnately divided. Needle-like pistil. ........0cccccsceseeseseseeseeeee Geranium: 68
Leaves opposite, alternate, or basal. 5 sepals. 5 or 10 stamens. 5-parted stigma. Ovary inferior. .............0. Evening Primrose: 70
Leaves alternate or basal. Evergreen. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 10 stamens. Mostly bell-shaped. flowers..........:.sseseeseeeeeeeee Pyrola: 136
Leaves alternate or basal. 5 leathery sepals. 5 petals (up to 10). Numerous stamens. 3 to 5 simple pistils. .............0004 Peony: 63
Leaves alternate, basal, or whorled. Stamens aligned opposite petals. Fruit is a capsule. Moist soil... Primrose: 130
Leaves alternate or basal. Usually an oblong ovary with 2 styles. Small flowers. Usually in mountains. ..............04- Saxifrage: 66
Leaves alternate and often palmately lobed. Slimy juice. Numerous stamens fused in a COlUMN.........cceeeseeeeeeseneee Mallow: 105
Leaves alternate and often palmately lobed. Slimy juice. 5, 10, or numerous staMeNs. ........s:ceccesseeeseeesesesseseteeeeeee Cacao: 107
Leaves alternate. 3-15 sepals. 0-15 petals. Numerous stamens. 3+ simple pistils often with hooked tips. ............. Buttercup: 55
Leaves alternate. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5 stamens. Hollow stalks and compound umbbedls............0::sseee eS Parsley: 179
Leaves alternate, sometimes pinnately divided (rarely palmately lobed or divided) and often oval and serrated.
(continued) 5, 10, 15+ stamens. 1 to numerous pistils. Fruits extremely variable. ...........c:escesseseeseeseeeeeeeesenees Rose: 91
—Be sure to read up on the Rose family, since it is challenging to write an adequate description here.—
30
Key to Regular Dicot Flowers with 5 Separate Petals
Grape Family
Parsley Family
Buttercup Family
4
U
Caltrop Family
Geranium Family
B OR
Flax Family
Miner's Lettuce/
Purslane Families
Pink Family Primrose Family Woodsorrel Family
31
Key to Dicot Trees and Shrubs by Their Fruits
(Species with showy flowers are also included in the flower keys)
Start here:
Leaves alternate. Fruits clustered in catkins. Individual fruits are small capsules, often with silky hairs. ........:.+++0+ Willow: 76
Leaves alternate. Milky sap. Fruits spiny. Macht. ...c.occveresesvesssssssescnsusotsevnsvontusonousnssssavusuenessssnssursestortieatunsroncoetes Mulberry: 88
Leaves alternate and usually pinnate. Fruit is a pea-like pod. .......::.sscsscsssesssersssssonsnsonsnesseasensnsbneasensessesnestohsheossessaenranssese Pear79
Leaves alternate and simple. Fruits clustered in usually large, cone-like structures. Big flowetS........:-sseerseeereees Magnolia: 52
Leaves alternate and serrated. Fruits in cone-like catkins. Individual fruits are nuts or winged seeds, .........:+s+ssseeseree Birch: 101
Leaves alternate and serrated, often oval. Fruits are dry seeds or follicles. 5 persistent sepals..........:scsssesessseseeeereneseneeters Rose: 91

Fruit is a winged seed (not including seeds from catkins):
Leaves opposite and palmate or rarely pinnate. Winged seeds develop in pairs. Acer. .....:sssesescseeceseetenenseaesenenees Soapberry: 102
Leaves opposite and pinnate. Winged seeds in loose clusters. Praxis. ...ccsccsessesesesseseneesesereeseseesensnsenerssensenseecsansenseees Olive: 149
Leaves alternate, often asymmetrical. Seed positioned in middle of wing. UlMUs. ...ceccsseesererereseeenerereneerereenenenensnenees Elm: 87
Fruit is a nut or nut-like (walnut, acorn, etc.):

Leaves opposite and palmate. Large, nut-like seed wrapped in leathery or spimy Skin. ......cccscseseseseseeeeeseseseneaees Soapberry: 102
Leaves alternate and pinnate. Hard-shelled nuts in husks. Inside looks like walnuts or pecans. Aromatic..............+++ Walnut: 99
Leaves alternate. Mostly acorn-like nuts, usually attached to a cap. Cap may have Spines........ssscscsesesesseerenenenenerenerens Beech: 100
Leaves aivertiate: Nuts with ttpphied G8acts: .....6cesicascccsccsqsssontcsesd
jesnsdstdasies dhbvenpanancaducdbinavensineussdsusedt Sbimarainees Hazelnut: 101
Fruit is a capsule:
Leaves opposite. 3- to 6-chambered capsule with numerous seeds. Showy flowers. .......:+s:sseesssessestesteneeneeneeneens Hydrangea: 125
Leaves opposite and simple. 2-chambered capsule with 2 seeds per Cell. ......scscssscesessseseeseseseseseneneeseseseneeessesenenensesenees Olive: 149
Leaves opposite and pinnate. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5, 10, 15 stamens. 5-chambered ovary. Desert habitats...........+000+++ Caltrop: 72
Leaves opposite or alternate. 3-chambered capsule (sometimes 2 or 4). May have thorns........:-ssssssssseseseeesseseenees Buckthorn: 96
Leaves alternate. 2-chambered woody or leathery capsule with 1 or 2 bony seeds per chamber. .........::s:s0ses0000 Witch Hazel: 62
Leaves alternate and simple. Often evergreen. 4-5 (up to 10) chambers with numerous seeds..........+ssssesesesesenesenenees Heath: 132
Leaves alternate and serrated. 2-5 chambered capsule. 5 persistent sepals............cscscssssssssscsvsccsssscessesenserensssenensneseretenss Rose: 91
Fleshy fruits that are not true berries:

Leaves alternate, usually serrated. Pulpy fruit with sepals still attached on the bottom, forming a “star.” .........2:2c:0e00000 Rose: 91
Leaves alternate and serrated. Aggregate fruit, like a raspberry. Bushes or brambles. Rubus Spp...-sssssscesseesrssseseseseseseseees Rose: 91
Pieivenaecrmrate. |Milticy sap. Aepresate firaie, Moris. oon yon neccnsenennncessusronasnnteisunexes
Mbnconnos consenagilaensaimediaieeatiinia Mulberry: 88
Leperaeente: Milky aap. Fio-like fruit: Tropical. Facies: 5.2 .2s-scesch ones encanzesusanaloydasnentpaguaks
daasncctancilaeapad eeesPine tasMulberry: 88

Fruit is a berry with several to numerous small seeds (Cross-check with the section below.):
Leaves opposite and simple, pinnate, or palmate. Fruits in pairs or clusters. Pithy stems.............-.+0+0+ Honeysuckle/Adoxa: 176
Leaves alternate. Berry translucent with lines running end to end. Sepals remaining. Shrubs. ..............cesseseeee Gooseberry: 65
Leaves alternate. Often evergreen. Mostly small shrubs. Circular indentation or star at end of berry........sssssseseeeee Heath: 132
Leaves alternate or opposite. May have thorns. 3-chambered berry (sometimes 2 OF 4)......s:scsssssessssesseseeeeeeesees Buckthorn: 96
Leaves alternate and palmate or pinnate. Berries form in umbels, dense heads, or elongated spikes...........0000s0000+ Ginseng: 178
Fruit is a drupe—a fleshy fruit with a stony pit. (Cross-check with the section above.):
Leaves opposite. Flowers with 4-5 sepals, 4-5 petals, 2 stamens. Fruit is a purple drupe or berry.........c.sssesssseeseseseeeees Olive: 149
Leaves opposite or sometimes alternate or whorled. Flowers often with showy, colored bracts. ........:::s:sseseseeeee Dogwood: 124
Leaves opposite and simple, pinnate, or palmate. Fruits in pairs or clusters. Pithy stems...........0+0:000+ Honeysuckle/Adoxa: 176
Leaves opposite and pinnate. 5 sepals. 5 petals. 5, 10, or 15 stamens. 5-celled ovary. Desert habitats...........s0+0+00++ Caltrop: 72
Leaves opposite or alternate, usually silvery in color or with orange dots underneath. May have thorns. ...........+++++ Oleaster: 97
Leaves alternate. Highly aromatic. Deciduous in the North, but evergreen in the South...........c:csesesessseseseeseseesenenees Laurel: 53
Leaves.alternate. Fruit with a “seam” down one side like a cherry. Prunus, ..1:..scs-ccossccsssecerssersieonesocecnberssenensonsnacnasssannane Rose: 91
Leaves alternate. Loose cluster of dry fruits from a single stem attached to the middle of a bract. Trees. ...........+. Basswood: 107
Leaves altemate, often asymmetrical. Trees or; shrubs: (Celis. ..si.v.cncsssssudlbddaoshtvssdapsad
ioussotvatrevuhese Saiscooiesoriteehias sabassient Elm: 87
Leaves alternate and either trifoliate or pinnate. Shrubs. Red or white berries. ............:ccsssesssseseessseeseseescseeesseeeeeeeees Cashew: 104
Leaves alternate and simple or pinnate, with spines on margin. Evergreen. Bright yellow inner bark. ...............00.44. Barberry: 58
Leaves alternate and pinnate. Nut-like seed wrapped in translucent, fleshy skim..........scscsssssseessssssesersesessesaesenees Soapberry: 102
oe
Key to Dicot Trees and Shrubs by Their Fruits
(Species with showy flowers are also included in the flower keys)
Flowers are often very consistent across a family, while fruits tend to be much more variable. The Rose family,
for instance, includes many plants with dry seeds or one-celled capsules, but also fleshy fruits as varied as strawberries,
apples, and cherries. Nevertheless, it is helpful to have a Key to Trees and Shrubs by their Fruits because the fruits are
often much more visible than the flowers. Readers may not notice a tree in bloom if the flowers are inconspicious
and have no petals. Therefore, such families are not included in the flower keys. But readers may be drawn to a tree
or shrub during the fruiting stage, so it is necessary to include the key here. Note that trees and shrubs with showy
flowers are included in both this key as well as the flower keys.
Pea Family
Mulberry Family
Laurel Family
Honeysuckle / Adoxa Families

Sumac Family
33
Key to Monocot Flowers
(Excluding Trees. See the Palm Family, page: 189)
oS Monocots with Showy Flowers

cn
Lo —~ Aquatic plants with flower parts in 3s and 6 to numerous simple pistils, usually
5 on a cone-like head. Water Plantain: 183
Aquatic plants of fresh or saltwater with flower parts in 4s and 1-4 simple ete
pistils. Pondweed (also listed below): 188
— Aquatic plants with regular flowers, either bisexual or unisexual and parts in 3s,
with an inferior ovary that matures as a spongy capsule. Frogbit: 186
Plants with mucilaginous (slimy) juice and slightly irregular flowers with parts —__
in 3s. Sepals and petals are easily distinguished from each other. Spiderwort: 190
94 Wetland plants with 3 pink sepals, 3 pink petals, 6 simple pistils, and flowers
> clustered in umbels. Flowering Rush: 182
Flowers densely clustered in a showy spike, often wrapped in a large green or
white modified leaf called a “spathe.” (Individual flowers are small and non-showy.)
Fruit is a berry. Arum: 184 (Lacking a spathe: Sweet Flag: 182)
_ Flowers with 3 sepals and 3 petals similar in size and color, plus usually 6 stamens.
Fruit is a 3-celled capsule or berry. (Most showy, regular monocot flowers belong
to this group.) Lily family or its allies (next page).
Aquatic plants with lily-like flowers and spongy stems. Pickerelweed: 191
Lily-like flowers, but only 3 stamens. Leaves usually arise from base of the plant
tl in a flat plane. Iris: 201 |
: Distinctly irregular monocot flowers (sometimes not showy). Inferior ovary —— }
swells to become seed capsule. Orchid: 202
|
Monocots with Non-Showy Flowers
___- Vining plants with or without tendrils. Flowers/berries clustered in umbels.
Greenbrier: 195
Aquatic plants with long, narrow leaves. Minute flowers clustered in pike a
or balls with male flowers above and female flowers below. Cattail: 204
Aquatic, grassy plants with 6 green tepals, 6 stamens, and 3 simple pistils.
(-—~Rannoch-Rush: 187
Aquatic plants (often in damp meadows) with grassy leaves. Flower parts in 3s
with 3 to 6 simple pistils (sometimes basally united). Arrowgrass: 187
Submerged aquatic plants with narrow, serrated leaves. Submerged unisexual

flowers with a single stamen enclosed by a bract, or a single pistil, sometimes
enclosed by a bract. Water Nymph: 186
Aquatic plants of fresh or salt water with flower parts mostly in 4s and 1-4 aaa
simple pistils (also listed above). Pondweed: 188
Grassy plants with knee-like joins (nodes) present on the main flower stem.
Grass: 207
Grass like plants with triangular flower stems and no nodes. (Some have round, ———
pithy stems.) Sedge: 206
Grass-like plants with small, green, lily-like flowers and parts in 3s. Rush: 205—____
Minute aquatic plants floating in the water, without noticeable stems or flowers.
Duckweed: 184
34
Key to Lily-Like Monocot Flowers
(Flowers with 3 sepals and 3 petals usually identical in size and color.)
Refined Taxonomy
Aside from the Pickerelweed family, all the families and subfamilies
below were previously lumped together as the conglomerate Lily family. These
are monocot plants with 3 sepals and 3 petals that are usually identical in size
and color, as well as 6 stamens, and a 3-parted pistil. Taxonomists recognized
that many of these plants were not closely related to each other, but their
proper relationships were difficult to discern from appearances alone. Many
different schemes were proposed, with up to seventy different possible families
or subfamilies split out of the original family. However, there were always
contradictory plants that didn’t fit neatly within one grouping or seemed to
overlap with another one.
Recently, taxonomists have turned to molecular and genetic studies
to tease out the proper relationships between these plants, segregating the old
Lily family into a number of families and subfamilies that are presumably
more accurate than those proposed in the past. Unfortunately, many of these
new families lack obvious patterns for simple memorization and identification,
and there is still a great deal of overlap between the families.
If your flower has lily-like characteristics, you can use this key to help
narrow down the identification to the proper family. However, when cross-
referencing with other sources, such as keying out a flower in another book,
keep in mind that any plant from the following families or subfamilies might
be listed as part of either the Lily family, or several other possible families
previously proposed by taxonomists. lady tulip
Tulipa clusiana
Lily-like flowers, but with distinct sepals and petals: Lily Family
3 large, leaf-like green bracts. 3 green sepals. 3 showy white to pink or red petals. Trillium ....ss-seseserseeeres Bunchflower: 194
Slender leaves. 3 green or colored sepals. 3 petals, often hairy-feathery, accented near base. .......-sssssssesereersees Sego Lily: 192
Lily-like flowers with similar sepals and petals:

Aquatic plants with spongy stems. .......scsssecssssssesseeseeseeneeseensentsnsesessssnsessoncanenseansanennennceneaneancanscasensencensaesesseess Pickerelweed: 191
Leaves fern-like, feathery. Small flowers. Fruit a red or greenish berry. Asparagus .......secsesssseeseersrseseeteeseneeneeneens Asparagus: 197
Leaves whorled. Flowers small and greenish. Fruit a berry. Medeola ...cecsssessseseesestseesesestesseenseeeneseenenees Indian Cucumber: 192
Leaves whorled or alternate. Flowers showy, often with spots on the petals. Fruit is a capsule. LiliWi ........sseesseseeeeens Lily: 192
Leaves alternate. Stem zigzags from leaf to leaf:
Flower solitary beneath each leaf. Fruit an orange or red berry. Streptopus ...s.ssssereersereererreeererrenrereenseeeseeseey Sego Lily: 192
Flowers one to several beneath each leaf. Fruit a red to purple berry. Polygomatum ...c.seseseseesseesseeeceesereenens Beargrass: 198
Flowers at end of stem, often in pairs. Fruit a lumpy or pointed red berry, often fuzzy. Prosartes .....+e0 Sego Lily: 192
Flowers at end of stem, numerous. Fruit a spotted or striped berry. Smilacina | Maianthemum.....s.-srreer Nolina: 198
Flowers at end of stem. Fruit a capsule. UvUlaria ..ccccccsssesesesererereeseseseseseseseseseseseesanecesenenenenenenenensness Autumn Crocus: 195
Leaves alternate or basal. Bunches of white or green flowers in spike or raceme. Pistil with 3 styles. ............ Bunchflower: 194
Leaves alternate or basal. Flowers arranged in a spike. Starchy bulb layered similar to an OMION. «......-+++s+-ssseeseseees Agave: 199
Leaves alternate or basal. Flowers in umbels or solitary, emerging from spathe-like bract (wrapped in a modified leaf).
Petals separate. Bulb layered like an onion. (May or may not have onion SATCU) iayetese cesech Amaryllis: 196
opennincstraisacenentauee
Petals united. Bulb is a starchy corm without layers. .....sssssesssssseseseeeseseessseeseneseeneseeneseeneaneensesescseencesseseseeey Brodiaea: 197
192
Leaves basal. White or yellow flowers. Fruit is a purple berry. Clntonia ....sesscececerseneeieeneeiecieesess Indian Cucumber:
eees Day Lily:
eens 200
Leaves basal. Flowers large and lily-like. Long, tuberous roots. Hemerocallis .....cssecsseeseesissessisceenie
Leaves basal. Flowers white with united petals. Fruit a red berry. Comvallaria ......sssesssesses sereereneeeenesies ieesiie Nolina: 198
Leaves basal, usually fibrous. Rugged desert plants with a tall central flower spike. .....---sseese-- Beargrass or Agave: 198/199
200
Leaves basal, filled with mucilaginous (slimy) juice. Desert-like plants. Tubular flowers. WALDGen axon cteoncaviguapenase Asphodel:
of the above fit, it is probably a true member of the Lily family. ........-sssseseesee s Lily: 192
Leaves basal. Showy flowers. If none
35
a,
ae)
* 5 *
Ct
; : q H =a)
i od
a" : \/ -
kt -’ | me
ae a sep bok ig
; i 4 P,
‘ nme "©at BA eA wen
a bana
= fj Dl ol acy Tania ayy
j 7 y linet ivReace wk
4 aardsi
iefni veo 2
Ay) dng Ate
HE ig seni csEa: = 4
~ M *
p i “*
wis rite
eal ni
il uO si ved
ERR 2ab aerindi
oe ade teat pebgi
* agile
Ph autFry ka
SX A. 9 :
7S OSE teal whit
2 A ie. 7 ss Dep ;
, ls a sorhn ie fy) UF a ex $49chal “ oe 8Pils
rh Tie: iieatin eis ek rts

: Hea Hix sr ~ eA;
Sate oats
— ; 4 Le! % ™
id [Pe
be Ox ? eT
ad
‘ te: i ; -
‘ et b> Seeks | :
Womidy ity rst pr ices Tuc kero ialacise iketi
gene LE yr Pale te ulna rey chee vegas © aera pobre
Sey, ree holds oak yvrott ashe elerny Sralery tome
SutaNy ey ‘nt “Gl eh . sé
a alet 7
tists ae we eeite: is nerlin sand

ey er eae ee es Spatae fod oath . a Sank Rib aul es ie il
Big arstecabpdg tab re Larges, acs dccho) bit eechenen fo weasel Nae icseat
CH, FOV me te ee ee tie svat iiadtoninan i a
Wag a my
ee ees te vaya we at deer tie pooreesbie
©
a i rhe p = ta 0 Poet PY aiahe tue Ai
‘“ i | Siok { wpb Hi gina be ater) - tet ce piss
cer etnmt aphicegcts se tevBswig Si rome waar ey aii ee

aes tents ve ‘nh, cae bast dis v3 ae Semele PheSepia ercbusie ebrae Bes
> oa Sick k Les aTabee') sory tuted
eee Sen ae att pith tay afial “Maat: ni Priscs,
ar iss oo ohyoe TerSet eseta ip oe
rey Apres Cranebt hones senators prdrhen S00 WY
ic aimnn eee ed aea “g Sh ea Nehoth ea) eh ‘
Riise sim elke, Piteden a ner oht WeAMS alll
; aa serie SY ruil wheyinfers
: AC alae Joni codiat gerd pron
: : = ta be Vo Woy hs
*att eet agit |i
raat : it 4 et. Ame Rye) serie bs A é aad anre
ae a lie. er sa Day : ‘ ais el a s 1 tint, 1 ve a:
ee ee 4 hh ifleyt fs) 6 we Caan wah sina
ahs oe eae A Craik ‘ ara . ee nghgea
aS ; / : ‘ gs oo nig
ys see.
Ba.
re
Pa Pik 3 4 ’ F i
, 4 a tee
b f : v= PT
7 “ * Prot T ae
r CA ?
<= ‘ ‘ a 7 D
& a4 - @
Part Il:
Reference Guide
An Herbal Field Guide
to Plant Families of North America
broadleaf plantain
Plantago major
Plantain Family
Clade: Clubmoss > Order: Clubmoss > Family: Clubmoss
Patterns of the Clubmoss Family
: thallus
Clubmosses are spore producers, much

like regular mosses, but they also have
true roots, stems, and leaves for ggstiiaiime
transporting water and nutrients
internally. Therefore, they grow =
running clubmoss
taller and can be identified as clubmoss
Lycopodium clavatum
usually upright, mossy plants Lycopodium
with sometimes woody stems.
Clubmoss rears Ree ee

The northern hemisphere was covered with vast, swampy forests from about 200 to 250, million years ago.
These forests included now-extinct species of the Clubmoss family that grew to more than one hundred feet high!
Note that peat moss (Sphagnum) is not a Clubmoss since it has no vascular system. (See page 8.)
The Clubmosses have horizontal branching stems, either above or below ground. These send up erect shoots
ranging in size from a half inch to over a foot tall in some species. The clubmosses produce spores in a cone-like struc-
ture at the end of a stalk. They are “homosporous,” meaning they produce spores that are neither male nor female.
The spores are shed, then germinate to become a minute “thallus,” meaning a plant part that is not differentiated
into leaves or a stem: The thallus produces male sperm cells and female egg cells. Upon fertilization, the egg cells
develop into new plants. The reproductive cycle is exceedingly slow in the club mosses. Twenty years or more can
pass between the dropping of the spores and the final germination of the new plant.
Worldwide, there are about 13 genera and 400 species, most of which were formely lumped together within
Lycopodium. Due to segregation, there are potentially 7 genera in North America, including Diphasiastrum, Lycopo-
diella, Palhinhaea, Pseudolycopodiella, Huperzia, and Phlegmariurus. Some taxonomists propose segregating the latter
two genera into a new family, Huperziaceae.
Huperzia—firmoss (15/11/1) Firmosses grow in clumps. Some northern species superficially resemble fir trees (Abies).
Lycopodium—clubmoss (25/14/7) * Clubmoss spores have been used as a homeostatic for nosebleed or other hemorrhaging
and to absorb fluids from damaged tissues (Lust). The spores were once used as flash powder for stage performances
(Smith). Picking and drying the moss will cause it to produce a large, final crop of spores.
Staghorn clubmoss (L. clavatum) reportedly contains toxic alkaloids (Schauenberg), but Native Americans used the
tea as an analgesic to relieve pain after childbirth (Willard). The whole plant can be applied to relieve muscle cramps
(Treben). Chinese used the pollen as a dusting powder to coat suppositories and to keep pills ftom sticking together.
Today clubmoss spores are sold as “vegetable sulphur;” the powder is dusted onto diaper rashes, bed sores, and herpes
eruptions. The spores contain a waxy substance that is soothing on the skin, and it repels water. Reportedly you can
dip a spore-coated hand in water and remain completely dry. The spores were formerly used as a dusting powder for
condoms. The roots were used as a mordant to set dyes (Rogers).
38
Clade: Clubmoss > Order: Spike Moss > Family: Spike Moss
Spike Moss Family—Selaginellaceae

Members of the Spike Moss
family have small leaves arranged in X | Spike Moss Family
four rows along the stems. Each leaf Ui
has a small, scale-like appendage at YY, club spike moss y]WH meadow spike moss
PE 8 NN i WA) Selaginella apoda
the base ey
of the upper
;
surface, which ban, Sieauiste
NAY Se/aginoides
MY
fWh
PeepS oe
helps distinguish them from the N d
Clubmoss family. This is believed
to be an ancestral hold-over with no
function in the living species.
Spike Mosses are hetero-
sporous, meaning that they produce
both male and female spores on the
plant. In an intermediate step on the
way to producing seeds, the female
spores develop into a thallus on the x
plant and are fertilized before being
shed. Worldwide, there is 1 genus These are short, upright or spreading
and some 750 species. female < plants with branching stems. They
produce both male and female spores.
spore AW
Selaginella—spike moss, resurrec-
tion plant (700/37/4) In times
WZ.
Ga fe Tal we male spores
of drought, the resurrection
plant (S. lepidophylla) of the desert soutwest rolls its leaves into a tight dry ball. Upon exposure to moisture it imme-
diately uncurls and continues growing. It is often cultivated as a curiosity. Note that another resurrection plant, called
Anastatica, belongs to the Mustard family (Asch). There is also a resurrection fern in the Polypody family. Medicinally,
spike moss can be mashed and simmered in milk, used internally or externally for snake or spider bites (Rogers).
Appalachian quillwort
Clade: Clubmoss > Order: Quillwort > Family: Quillwort lsoetes engelmannii
Quillwort Family—Jsoetaceae
If you raise fish in an aquarium, then you may
already be familiar with the Quillwort family. The
Quillworts are small plants, typically found growing on
the bottom of fresh-water ponds and lakes. They have
hollow quill-like leaves, with a spore sack (sporangia) at
the base of each leaf. They are heterosporous, meaning
that they produce both male and female spores. The
outer leaves produce the male spore sacks, while the
inner leaves produce the female spore sacks. SS
Worldwide, there are 2 genera and 77 species. Only e
Isoetes is found in North America. Stylites is only found &
in the Peruvian Andes. LL
| a, male spores
Tsoetes—quillwort (75/45/5) Various species are native Oo ; OG @
America. Ss ~ SY y, a ‘ 0 bo
to ae and provinces ico
Quillwort is often planted in aquariums. Turn A CE y fA \ 0s oa
to page 9 for an illustration of lake quillwort (/. female spore
lacustris)
These are short, aquatic, grass-like plants with quill-like
(hollow) leaves that produce both male and female spores.
39
Clade: Fern > Order: Adder’s Tongue > Family: Adder’s Tongue
Adder’s Tongue Family—Ophioglossaceae

The Adder’s Tongue or Grape-
fern family is more primitive: than common
the other ferns. The sporangia form moonwort
as globe-shaped sacks on a stalk or 80#nychium
M lunaria
at the base, unlike most other ferns
with sporangia on the underside of
the leaves. They are homosporous, These plants
produce sporagnia
meaning the spores are neither male
on a stalk, not on the
nor female. Males and females are underside of the leaves.
produced on a thallus on the ground,
where fertilization takes place. World- adder’s tongue
Ophioglossum
wide, there are 4 genera and 70 spe- vulgatum
cies. North American genera are listed
below.
= =F = tay | PEAS
Botrychium—grape fern, moon- ’ i

wort (40/33/10) One species is Adder SsTong ue Family
known to be boiled and eaten in the Himalayas and New Zealand (Sturtevant). A tea of the root has emetic, expecto-
rant, and diaphoretic properties (Fern). The tea induces a gentle, warm sweat while soothing the nervous system. It is
also mildly diuretic (Rogers).
Ophioglossum—adder’s tongue (30/10/1) The botanical name is Greek for “snake tongue,” which the spore-bearing stalk
resembles. Other ferns unroll their new leaves, but the grape ferns open them laterally. The leaves of at least one species
are edible. Medicinally, the juice of the leaves is taken for internal bleeding and bruises (Fern).
Common Terminology for Ferns

Fern leaves are similar to other types of leaves, but have
a unique terminology. The whole leaf is often called a frond.
Young fern fronds are often coiled up as fiddleheads. The stem
or petiole is known as a stipe, while the leafy part is known as
the blade. The stem may extend through the blade as the midrib,
known as a rachis. In a few species, the blade may be simple like
the adder’s tongue above, or sometimes lobed or deeply lobed or
pinnatifid. Most often, the blade is divided to form a pinnate leaf.
Each segement of the pinnate leaf is known as a pinna (plural:
pinnae). These pinnae may also be divided, forming a bipinnate
frond, where the smaller segments are known as pinnules. In rare
cases, these pinnules may also be divided, forming a tripinnate
frond.
A frond may be either sterile or fertile. The spore cases or
sporangia are typically clustered into a sorus (plural: sori), typically
found on the underside of a fertile frond. The shape and position
of these sori are often helpful aids for identification. In many
species, the sorus is covered by a thin membrane, known as an
indusium (plural: indusia), which may wither away as the frond
matures. The presence or absence and shape of an indusium is
also utilized in fern identification.
rattlesnake fern
Botrychium virginianum
40
Clade: Fern > Order: Horestail > Family: Horsetail
Horsetail Family—Equisetaceae
Horsetail produces two different stalks in some species. fertile stalk
One is the fertile “jointgrass,” the other is the sterile “horsetail.” 4
The fertile stalk produces a cone-like structure at the top, which infertile stalk ;
is covered with spore-producing scales. The spores are wrapped
with small bands. These bands unwrap in dry weather to func-
tion as a parachute to carry the spores on the wind. On the
ground, the spores produce a thallus, cross-fertilize, then develop
into a new plant. There is 1 genus and 23 species worldwide.
Ancestral Horsetails were abundant during the Carbinifer-
ous period, 360 to 299 million years ago. Many species grew into
giant trees. These ancient plants became a significant portion
of our coal deposits. Today, the tallest living species is the giant
Mexican horsetail (E. myriochaetum), which often grows more
than fifteen feet tall. Horsetails have an abrasive quality to them
because they absorb silica from the soil, giving strength to the
as (
plant structure. | i Common horsetail #
H Equisetum arvense ny
Equisetum—horsetail, joint grass, scouring rush (23/16/8) * The
horsetail contains significant quantities (5—8%) of silica and
silicic acids plus saponins (Tyler), which makes it an excellent
abrasive pad for cleaning camp cookware. This silica content
is beneficial for the hair and fingernails (Bigfoot). The roots
of some species are starchy and edible (Sturtevant).
Medicinally, a tea of the plant is mildly diuretic and astrin-
gent, useful for urinary tract infections, intestinal bleeding,
excess menstruation, or external bleeding. Horsetails are also
rich in calcium and other constituents believed beneficial for
mending fractured bones and connective tissues.
The fresh plant contains thiaminase, an enzyme that
of
Horsetail
atterns
the
Family
These are spore producing plants
Q_ with jointed, abrasive, hollow stems.
destroys vitamin B1 stored in the body. Cooking renders it
safe. However, the silica content can irritate the urinary tract
and kidneys with excessive use. The plants are known to accumulate heavy metals and chemicals from polluted soil.
(Tilford).
; 5 woodland horsetail
~~ |Equisetum sylvaticum
meadow horsetail
Equisetum pratense
giant horsetail
Eiaioe telmateia
Ra
Clade: Fern > Order: Royal Fern > Family: Royal Fern
Royal Fern Family—Osmundaceae

Sporangia form on a frond If you have ever encountered ferns with a spike of golden-
without chlorophyll, which
matures as a distinctive
brown “flowers,” then you know the Royal Fern, family. Often
golden-brown spike. found in swampy ground, these large ferns have heavy rootstocks
with dense masses of wiry roots. The ferns sometimes develop
extensive colonies of clones as new ferns sprout up from the roots.
In North American genera, the sporangia form on a frond without
chlorophyll, which matures as a distinctive golden-brown spike
that may be mistaken as flowers. This ancient lineage dates back to
the Upper Permian period. Worldwide, there are 4 genera and 15
to 25 species. Our native genera, found in the eastern half of the
country, are listed below. Todea and Leptopteris grow in the southern
hemisphere.
Osmunda—flowering ferns (10/3/0)

Osmundastrum—cinnamon fern (2/1/1) The North American species
is the cinnamon fern (O. cinnamomeum), formerly included in
Osmunda. It is considered a living fossil, because it can be traced
back through the fossil record to at least 75 million years old.
royal fern
Osmunda regalis
Family
Fern
Royal
Clade: Fern > Order: Water Fern > Family: Water Fern
Water Fern Family—Salviniaceae

The Water Ferns are small, floating ferns. The leaves may ap-
pear in pairs or rows, grouped in twos or threes. The Water Ferns may
be confused with members of the unrelated Duckweed subfamily of the
Arum family. Note the submerged sporangia on the illustration here. If
the sporangia are present then it is definitely a Water Fern.
Worldwide, there are 2 genera and 16 species. Salvinia may be
found in Florida and other southern states. Azolla is found across the
continent.
Azolla—mosquito fern (6/6/0) Azolla associates with cyanobacteria (blue-

green algae) to “fix” nitrogen from the atmosphere in a form that is =>
usable for plants, providing a tremendous source of fertilizer for rice c=
paddies in southeast Asia. The ferns form such a dense mat on the gy
water that mosquito larvae cannot come up for air, hence thecommon LL
name “mosquito fern.” Azolla was previously segregated into its own €
family, Azollaceae. oO water fern
Salvinia—water fern (10/10/0) Water Ferns are sometimes grown in EF Salvinia natans
aquariums, and they grow fast if there is adequate nutrition and light. 5 The Water Ferns ere
They help prevent algae growth by shading parts of the aquarium
sat and + small, floating ferns
eae with leaves grouped
consuming the nutrients in the water. One African species introduced
to a lake created a mat covering 77 square miles in just eleven months. in twos or threes.
42
Clade: Fern > Order: Polypod > Families: Bracken Fern and Polypod
Bracken Fern Family—Dennstaedtiaceae

Ferns of this family typically have large, highly divided leaves with
hairy or sometimes scaly stems. In other ferns, the sori that contain the
sporangia typically form towards the center of the frond. But members of
the Bracken Fern family develop sori near the edge or margin of the frond.
The sori may be either round with a cup-shaped membrane (indusia),
such as in Dennstaedtia or linear with a false indusium formed from the
curled edge of the leaf, such as in Pteridium. Worldwide there are about
11 genera and 175 species. North American genera are listed below.
Dennstaedtia—hay-scented fern (45/4/0) D. punctilobula is common in Ap-
palachia, where it often forms colonies of clones. When the light source
comes from one side, such as under a tree, the leaves tend to align with
each other facing the light. The crushed vegetation smells like fresh hay.
Hypolepis—bramble fern (140/1/0) H. repens grows in Florida.
Odontosoria—wedgelet fern (22/1/0) O. clavata grows in southern Florida.
Pteridium—bracken fern (10/2/1) The common name comes from the
Swedish word braken, meaning fern. Brackens are found worldwide in
all environments except deserts. This genus was formerly considered bracken fern
as single species, P aquilinum, but the different varities are now being Bracken
Family
Fern Pteridium aquilinum
treated as individual species. The leaves or fronds grow individually
from an underground rhizome. The immature fronds, known as fiddleheads, are edible raw or cooked, with a long
history of use around the world. However, raw bracken contains the enzyme thiaminase, which breaks down thiamine
(Vitamin B1) in the body, leading to symptoms of beriberi with excess consumption. Bracken is also known to contain
carcinogens that can lead to cancer, and consumption is now discouraged (Bell). The root contains saponin (Fern).
Polypod Family—Polypodiaceae
Polypod ferns grow in soil, on rocks, or as epiphytes—plants that grow on other plants but are not parasitic.
Leaves are variously shaped and divided with spores forming in rows of receptacles, called sori, on each side of the
midrib on the underside of the leaf. The sori lack a membrane covering (indusium). Worldwide there are about 40
genera and 500 species. North American genera are listed below.
Campyloneurum—strap fern (50/4/0) Native to Florida.
Microgramma—snake fern (20/1/0) Native to Florida.
Neurodium—tibbon fern (1/1/0) Native to Florida.
Pecluma—tockcap fern (30/3/0) Native to Florida. Formerly included in Polypodium.
Phlebodium—golden polypody (2/2/0) Native to Florida. Formerly included in Polypodium.
Pleopeltis—tesurrection fern
The resurrection fern shrivels when dry, but © (20/5/0) Grows from
quickly unfurls when wet. It is commonly & f Texas to Florida, as far
found on the trunks of oaks and elms in the os north as New York.
SONY
southern states. Ln eit Polypodium—polypody
(100/18/1) The root
contains a resinous, bit-
ter substance, volatile
oils, and a sugary mu-
cilage (Schauenberg). A
strong tea of the root of
the licorice fern (P. glyc-
yrrhiza) is useful as an
anti-inflammatory, es-
pecially as a mild alter-
native to antihistamines
(Moore). P vulgare con-
Paes fern tains osladin, which is
eee ; Pleopeltis squalida F mM i| 300 times sweeter than
. Polypod a y sugar (Rogers).
43
Clade: Fern > Order: Polypod > Family: Maidenhair Fern
Maidenhair Fern Family—Pteridaceae

Members of the Maidenhair Fern family typically grow in soil or on rocks with pinnately divided leaves.
Sporangia-bearing sori typically form along the veins and often grow together with age, forming a continuous band
or dense covering. The sori lack a true indusium (protective membrane), typically protected instead by a false indu-
sium formed from the recurved edge of the leaf.
Classification
of the ferns remains un- American | |
certain and hotly con- rockbrake —S\\he™
CryptogrammaSs, SS \
tested among botanists. . acrostichoides SAY
Each authoritative source
adopts a different clas-
sification scheme, with
some splitting Pteridaceae
into as many as eighteen
smaller families. The
larger and more accept-
ed families include the
Bracken Fern, Polypod,
Wood Fern, and Spleen- 1 fie
wort familes, which have e a
been separated out in the Pv portion: hibidenhay I) \|
text. The leftover ferns " Adiantum pedatum dee
remain lumped together | Maidenhair Fern Family
here. The family was also
known as Adiantaceae for awhile.
Acrostichum—leather fern (3/2/0) Native to Florida.
Adiantum—maidenhair (200/12/1) Various species grow from coast to coast. A tea of the leaves is an expectorant and
refrigerant, used for coughs and colds (Lust). A tea of the leaves or root is used as
heartleaf cliffbrake
a menstrual stimulant (Moore), or as a hair rinse to add shine and body (Tilford).
Pellaea cordifolia
Argyrochosma—false cloak fern (20/6/0) New genus derived from species for-
merly in Notholaena and Pellaea. Various species are native from California
to Wyoming, Texas, and Illinois.
Aspidotis—tace fern (4/3/1) Mostly native to slopes, ridges, and rocky outcrop-
pings, from British Columbia to Montana to Mexico.
Astrolepis—cloak fern (8/4/0) New genus derived from species formerly in
Cheilanthes and Notholaena. Native to the southern states from California
to Georgia.
@ .
+ Ceratopteris—water fern (3/3/0) Aquatic and semi-aquatic fern found in Cali-
fornia and from Texas to Florida.
, A A Cheilanthes—iip fern (150/28/2) Lip ferns are adapted to mostly dry conditions,
often found on rocks, growing from coast to coast.
41 Cryptogramma—tock brake (8/4/3) The regular fronds look much like parsely
leaves, while the fertile, spore-bearing leaves have long, narrow, bumpy seg-
4
ments covered thickly on the underside with sporangia. The ferns often grow
in crevices and cracks of rocks.
Notholaena—cloak fern (25/10/0) Cloak ferns are common in coarse, gravelly
; soils of mountain ranges in warm, semiarid regions from California to Texas.
4
¢ Pteris—brake fern (280/5/0) Introduced to subtropical climates from California
to Florida, north to Maryland. “Brake” is an old English term for “fern.”
Pellaea—cliff brake (40/15/2) Various species are found from coast to coast, mostly
in moist, rocky habitats. A tea of the plant can be taken for tuberculosis and
other lung infections (Bigfoot).
Pityrogramma—gold fern (15/2/0) Native to Florida.
Vittaria—shoestring fern (50/3/0) Native east of the Mississippi River.
4
Clade: Fern > Order: Polypod > Families: Wood Fern and Spleenwort
Wood Fern Family—Dryopteridaceae

The Wood Fern family was segregated from the Maidenhair Fern family and has become widely accepted as
its own family, but not yet well defined. Various genera included here are sometimes segregated into several smaller
families. As yet, the family remains too varied to offer any obvious patterns for convenient field identification.
(150/2/2) It containsa
fernlady
Athyrium— Wood Fern F amily yf
constituent like filicic acid (Densmore).
Arachniodes—holly fern (50/1/0) Holly fern
ie freale tern
)
‘ , Wg
is a non-native plant now growing in Cystopteris fragilis wy WY Lae
South Carolina. ae >) j
Ctenitis—tace fern (150/2/0) Native to
Louisiana and Florida.
Cyrtomium—nevvein hollyfern (15/2/0) C.
caryotideum is native from Louisiana to VY
Alabama. The Japanese C. faleatum has
become naturalized in coast states from | Se
Oregon to Texas to New York.
Cystopteris—bladder fern (18/11/2)
Deparia—talse spleenwort (50/2/0) Grows
east of the Mississippi River.
Diplazium—twinsorus fern (400/3/0)
Rocky Mountain cliff fern
Grows east of the Mississippi River. Woodsia scopulina
Dryopteris—shield fern (225/30/4) The
plant contains potent acids. A tea of
the root is used to expel worms, but must be followed by a purgative shortly afterwards to keep from poisoning the
body. It should never be mixed with alcohol. The tea is also used as a foot bath for varicose veins (Lust). A poultice of
the fresh, grated root is helpful for inflammation of the lymphatic glands. (Rogers).
Gymnocarpium—oak fern (9/9/3) Various species are found across the northern latitudes and south throughout the Rockies.
Lomariopsis—fringed fern (45/1/0) L. kunzeana is a native of Florida.
Matteuccia—ostrich fern (3/1/0) M. struthiopteris. The young fiddleheads are edible in moderation, but fresh they contain
thiaminase, which destroys vitamin B1 in the body, so they must be cooked. Native Americans in Canada roasted the
roots, then peeled away the outside and ate the cores.
Nephrolepis—sword fern (25/6/0) Various species grow from Arizona to Florida.
Onoclea—-sensitive fern (1/1/0) O. sensibilis is found from Texas north to Manitoba, east to the Atlantic.
Phanerophlebia—vein fern (8/2/0) Grows from Arizona to Texas.
Polystichum—holly fern, sword fern (260/15/5) The roasted roots are edible (Sturtevant). The fronds were used to line
steam pits for cooking (Turner).
Tectaria—Halberd fern (200/5/0) Various species grow in Texas and Florida.
‘Woodsia—cliff fern (30/16/2) Grows throughout North
maidenhair spleenwort America. Woodsia is sometimes split out into its own
Asplenium trichomanes
family, Woodsiaceae.
Spleenwort Family—Aspleniaceae
Ferns of the Spleenwort family all have linear sori
near the edge of the frond, with a flap-like indusium
(membrane) arising along one side. Worldwide,
there is only 1 genus and about 700 species.
Asplenium (including Camptosorus)—spleenwort

(700/28/2) A tea of the plant is used to remove ‘ob-
structions from the liver and spleen, and gravel from
the bladder (Kadans).
walking fern
Asplenium
rhizophyllum
45
Clade: Naked Seed > Order: Pine > Family: Pine
Pine Family—Pinaceae
The Pine family is as familiar as Christmas. Pines are mostly evergreen trees and shrubs with spirally arranged,
linear, needle-like leaves. Male cones are small and fall soon after dispersing their pollen to the wind. Female cones
briefly become elongated, exposing ovules to pollen in the air. These Cones are aerodynamically shaped to create
swirling wind currents to help catch the pollen. The pollen and cones are aerodynamically matched to each other,
so that each species captures its own pollen. After pollination, the scales grow rapidly and again cover the ovules,
allowing them to mature into seeds. Lightweight, winged seeds are primarily dispersed by wind. Heavier seeds are
disperesed by squirrels and birds. The sprouting seeds are multi-cotyledonous, with 3 to 24 seed leaves.
Primitive conifers first came into being about 300 million years ago, but most or all are extinct now. The
Pine family as we know it originated about 100 million years ago. Worldwide there are 11 genera and 220 species.
Our native genera are listed below. Between 35 and 40 million trees from multiple genera are cut and sold each year
in the United States as Christmas trees. Amber is the fossilized pitch from this family.
The Pine family produces edible seeds that are rich in oils, although they are small and difficult to gather
from most species. The needles may be used in tea as a beverage, or medicinally for a diuretic. The Pine family is
highly resinous, useful for its expectorant properties, but over consumption may lead to kidney complications, so
caution is advised. Read more about resins in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Tips for Identifying Pine Family Genera

Pines have 1 to 8 needles wrapped together at the base by a thin membrane.
Larches have bright green, deciduous needles arranged in a spiral at the branch buds.
The spruces usually have sharp, pointed needles that roll between the fingers. The cones hang down.
The firs have soft, “furry” needles that are flat and won't roll between the fingers. The cones point up.
Douglas fir cones hang down. The cones have distinctive, 3-lobed, trident-like bracts between the scales.
Hemlock trees have short, flat, blunt needles attached by a small stem.
Abies—fir (50/9/2) © Fir contains turpentine, an oleoresin made of essential oils and resin. The oleoresin is used internally
as a stimulant, diuretic, and diaphoretic or externally as a rubefacient (Densmore). The needles can be used as an aro-
matic bath for rheumatism and nervous diseases (Klein). Steeped fir needles make one of my favorite wilderness teas.
Larix—larch, tamarack (10/5/2) * Larches are deciduous, turning yellow in the fall before dropping their needles. The trees
sometimes exude a sweet, edible sap (Sturtevant). Medicinally, the needles, bark, and resin all contain varying amounts
of volatile oils, essentially turpentine. Drink a tea of the needles as a carminative to expel gas, or add the tea to your
bath water for inflamed joints. Excess consumption can injure the kidneys (Lust).
Picea—spruce (50/7/2) * Spruce trees like damp soil. Here in the West, they are often found along small streams in pine or
Douglas fir forests. Spruces are the most effective conifer for shedding rain. On one botanical outing, I led a group of
fifteen people under a big spruce tree to wait out a storm. We had a potluck picnic under the tree while the rain poured
down inches away. Medicinally, a tea of the shoots is expectorant and diaphoretic, ideal for coughs and bronchitis (Lust).
Pinus—pine (100/50/5) * Pine needles are generally (not always) attached to the branches in clusters of two (red pine group),
three (yellow pine group), or five (white pine group) needles per cluster. All pine nuts are edible, but many are impracti-
cal to harvest. Store-bought pine nuts typically come from Asia, or from any of several species of one- and two-needle
“pinyon pines” in the southwest. In addition, five-needle pines, such as whitebark (P albicaulis) and limber pine (P
flexilis) are pretty good alternatives. See Participating in Nature for instructions on harvesting and processing pine nuts.
Pines are resinous and aromatic. Medicinally, the tea is useful as an expectorant, but can irritate the kidneys. It is
reported that the needles of some pines cause abortions in cattle, so caution is advised here. Externally, the resin has a
disinfectant quality, like Pine-Sol®, which historically contained pine oil. The bark of some species contains powerful
antioxidants.
Pseudotsuga—Douglas fir (7/2/1) * The common name “Douglas fir” doesn’t fit well with the botanical name, which means
“false hemlock.” In damp weather, large Douglas firs often provide dry shelter for camping or waiting out a storm.
Isolated trees may be at risk for lightening strikes, but those in a forest are unlikely to be hit. The seeds are edible like
pine nuts, but smaller and not really worth the harvesting effort.
Tsuga—hemlock tree (15/5/2) There is no relationship between the hemlock tree and che poison hemlocks of the Parsley
family. Tsuga is astringent, diuretic, and diaphoretic. A tea of the bark or twigs is used for a sore mouth or throat, and
kidney or bladder problems. Externally it is used as a wash for sores (Lust). The inner bark was reportedly used by the
Native Americans for food in the springtime (Sturtevant).
46
Clade: Naked Seed > Order: Pine > Family: Pine
eastern white pine

Pinus strobus
a
> hs
es, y,
» red spruce
ponderosa pine Picea rubra
Pinus ponderosa YAQ
Cm
limber pine
Pinus flexilis ; Pine Family 3S
& =i
white spruce ° 2
-~ <A CN Picea glauca
s
A": panddarst
Douglas fir
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa larch \V
Larix laricina \\\
balsam fir
Abies balsamea
Clade: Naked Seed > Order: Pine > Family: Cypress
Cypress or Cedar Family—Cupressaceae

If you have ever smelled cedar or juniper wood, then you know
the Cypress family. These are mostly evergreen trees or shrubs with
small, scaly leaves and separate male and female cones, sometimes on
separate trees. The seed cones are typically woody or leathery, with
one to several seeds behind each scale. The juniper “berry” is actually
a cone with merged, fleshy scales. Most species are richly aromatic,
especially useful as incense. The wood is naturally resistant to decay,
and frequently used for construction and fence posts. Worldwide,
there are about 27 genera and 130 species. The former Bald Cypress
family (Taxodiaceae) is now included within the Cypress family.
Calocedrus (Libocedrus)—incense cedar (3/1/0) C. decurrens is native to
California, Nevada, and Oregon. A tea of the aromatic twigs can be
Port Orford white cedar sipped for stomach troubles or inhaled to aid a head cold (Fern).
Chamaecypanris lawsoniana
Chamaecyparis—white cedar (7/2/0) White cedar is used in sweat lodges
to ease rheumatism, arthritis, and other aches. It may also be used as a
wash or bath. The tea is a powerful diuretic (Fern).
Cupressus—cypress (15/10/0) A tea of the leaves is used internally or
externally to:stop bleeding and for colds (Fern).
Juniperus—juniper, savine (60/15/4) * The southwestern aligator juniper
(J. deppeana) has palatable fruits. Stronger tasting species are less edible, and excess consumption
can damage the kidneys. Juniper berries contain potent volatile oils and resins. The bitter berries
are used in making gin. Savine (J. sabina), of southern and central Europe, is considered toxic.
<—
7E..2teo
ae As a tule, if it tastes like food it probably is. If it tastes like turpentine, limit your consumption.
giant sequoia Medicinally, the fruits are eaten as a carminative to expel gas, and the distilled oil is rubbed
Sequoiadendron —_on painful joints. Juniper berries are not recommended for pregnant women (Lust, Tyler). Due
a to the germ-killing effects of the potent volatile oils, you may be able to decrease the risk of
catching a virus by keeping juniper berries in the mouth while around others who are infected
(Bigfoot). Similarly, try chewing the berries when drinking unclean water. Juniper needles can be added to bath water
for a stimulating effect on rheumatic joint pain. Utah juniper (J. osteosperma) produces a thick, fibrous bark that is
ideal tinder material for fire-starting.
Sequoia—tedwood (1/1/0) * S. sempervirens. Redwoods are the tallest trees in the world, with one individual measuring
379 feet. Redwoods and sequoias shed a portion of their narrow leaves or twigs each year, so they are considered de-
ciduous, even though they retain enough leaves to appear evergreen. The tea is aromatic and astringent. It is useful as
an expectorant to help expel mucous, and as a mild disinfectant to the urinary tract for bladder infections (Moore).
Sequoiadendron—giant sequoia (1/1/0) * S. giganteum. Sequoias are not as tall as redwoods, but the trees can be significantly
more massive. The General Sherman tree of Sequoia National Park in California is 275 feet tall and 36.5 feet in di-
ameter, containing more than 50,000 common juniper
cubic feet of wood. It is estimated to Juniperus communis
be 2,300 — 2,700 years old.
Taxodium—bald cypress (3/3/0) Bald
cypress grows primarily in swampy
habitats from Texas to New York.
They often have aerial roots that
brace the trees upright in the water.
Resin from the cones is used as an
analgesic. The bark can be used to
make cordage (Fern).
Thuja—ted cedar, arbor-vitae (5/2/1) *
Cedar contains toxic volatile oils. It
is used as a diaphoretic (promotes
sweating), emmenagogue (promotes white cedar
Thuja occidentalis
menstruation), and as an irritant
poultice for rheumatic pains. (Lust). creeping juniper
yr . .
Juniperus horzontalis
48
Clade: Naked Seed > Order: Pine > Family: Yew
Yew Family— Taxaceae

If you see a shrub or tree with conifer-like branches and red or
green berry-like fruits, then it is certainly a member of the Yew family.
In Taxus, the seed cones are highly modified, each cone containing a
single seed partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into
a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril. The fruits are eaten
by thrushes, waxwings and other birds, which disperse undamaged |
seeds in their droppings.
Worldwide, there are 6 genera and 20 species. The genera below
are native to North America. Three genera, including Torreya, can be
considered a subfamily, or segregated as Cephalotaxaceae.
Taxus—yew (10/5/1) * Yew wood is prized for making bows. The ber-
ries may be edible when ripe (Sturtevant), but all other parts of the
yew tree contain poisonous alkaloids. It is listed as expectorant and
purgative, but its use is not recommended without medical supervi-
sion (Lust). It also increases blood pressure (Phillips).
A potent cancer medicine, called paclitaxel (Taxol®), can
be derived from the bark of the tree, but it requires a great deal of
material to make one dose. It is now produced in a laboratory.
Torreya—stinking yew, California nutmeg (6/2/0) The Florida stinking
yew is 7. taxifolia. The fruit of the California nutmeg (Z’ californica)
resembles the true nutmeg (Myristica) in shape, but not in taste.
The plants are not related. Native Americans roasted and ate the
big fruits.
Clade: Naked Seed > Order: Mormon Tea > Family: Mormon Tea
Mormon Tea Family—Ephedraceae

If you spend time hiking around the desert southwest, you are sure to encounter Ephedra or Mormon tea.
Ephedras are leafless desert shrubs with jointed, green stems forming in whorls at nodes
along the stalk. The common names comes from Mormon pioneers who drank a tea
brewed from these leafless branches. The plants produce naked seeds like the pines, but
they form in a colored, cup-like structure called a perianth. The male cones have 2 to
8 anthers. The female cones have bracts covering the two maturing seeds. Worldwide
there is 1 genus and about 50 species.
Ephedra—Mormon tea, joint fir, ma huang (50/15/0) ° Ephedra is common in the desert
Southwest. It is mostly used as a beverage tea. The red berry is reported to be sweet
and edible (Asch).
Medicinally, the alkaloids ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are found in most
or all members of the genus. Chinese ephedra (£. sinica) is more potent than our
native species. Ephedrine stimulates the central nervous system and is thus used as a
headache medicine, much like caffeine. Over consumption can lead to nervousness,
tension and insomnia. Other side effects of ephedrine include high blood pressure,
reduced appetite, and reduced sexual desire (Emboden). Ephedrine has a dilating
effect on the bronchials, but a constricting effect on the blood vessels. The tea is
recommended for diabetes, asthma, heart ailments and syphilis (Bigfoot).
Ephedra is often added to natural weight-loss and energy formulas. The stimu-
lant effect is supposed to increase the burning of fats. At least fifteen people have
died from over dosing on ephedrine pills. Our southwestern species contain some ‘ L
ephedrine, but in minute amounts compared to Chinese plants. Ephedrine isnow on tea H S
produced synthetically for use as a decongestant in cold medications (Tyler). Ephedra
nevadensis *
49
Clade: Water Lily > Order: Water Lily > Familes: Water Lily and Fanwort
Water Lily Family—Nymphaeaceae

If you have ever seen a pond with lily pads then you have likely seen members of this family. These are peren-
nial, aquatic plants with thick, horizontal rootstocks and large leaves that float on the surface of the water. They have
solitary flowers on long stalks with 4 or 5 sepals, plus 5, 15, or more petals, and numerous (40 to 80) stamens. The
: ; ovary is positioned superi-
Water Lily Family or or slightly inferior and
consists of 5 to 25 united
carpels, with the partition
walls are present, forming
an equal number of cham-
bers. The ovary matures
as a leathery, capsule-like
“berry,” or as a schizocarp,
a fruit that breaks apart at
the carpels. Worldwide,
there are 6 genera and
ovary with 5 to 25
about 70 species. The
united carpels
lotus (Nelumbo) resembles
numerous stamens the water lily and was
previously placed in this
family, but is now is con-
yellow pond lily
- fragrant water lily sidered a distant family of
Nuphar lutea
Nymphaea odorata its own, Nelumbonaceae.
Key Words: Aquatic plants with large, floating leaves and showy flowers.
Nuphar—yellow pond lily (8/8/2) * Taxonomists debate whether all North American species are subspecies of the European
N. lutea, pictured above. Treated separately, NV. /utea has an edible root (Craighead), and NV. avena of eastern America
may be edible (Hall), but the common western species, NV. polysepala is strongly medicinal. A friend andImade ourselves
quite ill attempting to eat the root on a camping trip. Friends have reported similar experiences.
Pond lily seeds were eaten by Native Americans. The pods can be collected, dried, and pounded to remove the
seeds. The seeds are popped like popcorn, but with mild heat, then
winnowed to separate them from the hard shells and ground into meal
(Hart). In my experience, the seeds have the same nauseating aroma
as the roots, albeit less intense.
Nymphaea—water lily (40/13/2) The roots and seeds of several species are
reported to be edible (Sturtevant). The young leaves and flower buds
are edible as a potherb. The larger leaves can be used to wrap food for
baking. A tea of the root or leaf is gargled for sore throat, also used as
an eye wash, or as an astringent, mucilaginous lotion (Coon). Some
species may contain cardiac glycosides and alkaloids (Schauenberg). aataraitah
Caution is advised. Brasenia
schreberi
Fanwort Family—Cabombaceae
The Fanwort family is related to the Water Lily family and
sometimes included within it, but the flowers typically have parts in
threes, with 3 sepals, 3 petals, and 3, 6, 12, or 18 stamens. There are 3
to 18 simple pistils (apocarpous). Each pistil matures as a follicle, a dry
fruit with a seam down one side.
Brasenia—water shield (1/1/1) B. schreberi. The starchy roots are boiled,
peeled and eaten (Kirk).
Cabomba—fanwort (5/2/0) The submerged leaves are feathery. The plant
is often used in aquariums.
Fanwort Family
50
Clade: Magnolia > Order: Pepper > Family: Dutchman’s Pipe
woolly dutchman's pipe

Aristolochia tomentosa _
Patterns of the Claw
Dutchman's Pipe Family cA A.
a
f
Canadian wild ginger }}

Asarum canadense
a pipe shape in the

Dutchman’s Pipe. 4
ovary
inferior
12 stamens
dutchman’s pipe
0 petals
te Aristolochia
3 united sepals (A) californica
, » heats
1 >}
Dutchman’s Pipe Family—Aristolochiaceae

If you find a low-growing dicot-like plant with tubular flowers and parts in multiples of three, it is likely a
member of the Dutchman's Pipe or Birthwort family. Our members of this family have either regular or irregular,
bisexual flowers with 3 united sepals, 0 petals, and typically 12 stamens (6 to 36 possible). The ovary is positioned
inferior and consists of 6 (sometimes 4) united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of
chambers. It matures as a capsule with numerous seeds. Most members of this family are tropical plants. Worldwide,
there are 7 genera and about 460 species. North American genera are listed below.
Plants of this family contain potent volatile oils, frequently used in herbal medicine. These spicy plants
warm the body and stimulate sweating (diaphoretic), thus increasing blood flow (vasodilation) and causing increased
menstruation (emmenagogue) and uterine stimulation (oxytocic), hence the name “birthwort.” Read more about
volatile oils in the Medicinal Properties section of this book. Unfortunately, many species of this family also contain
the
toxic aristolochic acid, which can lead to permanent kidney damage or kidney failure and sometimes cancer of
urinary tract. Caution is advised.
Key Words: Dicot plants with tubular flowers and parts in threes.
(Weiner), and
Aristolochia—Dutchman’s pipe, birthwort (370/8/0) ° Dutchman’s Pipe contains a volatile oil, an alkaloid
These plants are also described as bitter, dia-
a strong, toxic acid. The tea is used for infected wounds (Schauenberg).
blood cell activity. A tea of the root is used
phoretic, and vasodilating, used to stimulate digestion, sweating, and white
The
as an oxytocic for stimulating uterine contractions during childbirth. Caution is advised in using this herb (Lust).
raw root was chewed and applied as a poultice for snake bite (Weiner).
can be used in oriental cooking.
Asarum—wild ginger (70/14/1) * Wild ginger is often common in moist forests. Thin slices
The powdered root (Hall) or leaves (Tilford) can be used as a spice (Hall). Medicinally , Asarum is a digestive stimu-
A. canadense is listed as diaphoretic,
lant, and like commercial ginger it can be used to relieve stomachaches (Coon).
American women.
carminative, expectorant and irritant. A tea of the root was used as a contraceptive by some Native
dangerous for use without supervision
A European species, A. europaeum, is purgative and diuretic. It is considered too
(Lust). True ginger belongs to the Ginger family, Zingiberaceae.
rn states, and often very
Hexastylis—heartleaf wild ginger (10/10/0) Heartleaf wild ginger is endemic to the southeaste
similar edible and medicinal
rare. Plants of this genus are evergreen while the Asarum are deciduous. The plants share
properties, and they are sometimes treated_as a single genera under Asarum.
at
Clade: Magnolia > Order: Magnolia > Family: Magnolia
Magnolia Family—Magnoliaceae
The trees and shrubs of the Magnolia family are distinctive with their showy flowers and “seed cones.” I was
fascinated by them as a young child living in California. Botanically, the flowers have 3 sepals and 3 or more petals.
The sepals and petals may be difficult to distinguish from one another in some species. The flowers are bisexual with
numerous stamens and numerous simple pistils. The pistils are positioned superior to the other parts. Each pistil ma-
tures into a follicle, a unicarpel-
; . late capsule with a seam down
Magnolia Family the side. In Magnolia the seeds
Trees with showy flowers and sometimes fall free from the fol-
numerous simple pistils forming ;
eo taes in he Gartt Shans ‘hang suspended from fine
flower. threads.
Magnolias are an ancient fam-
ily, dating back more than 100
million years in the fossil record.
The flowers have retained some
ancestral characteristics, where
the sepals, petals, stamens, and
pistils are arranged in a spiral
on a cone-like receptacle, rather
than in concentric rings as they
are in most other plant families.
tulip tree In addition, the stamens are not
iadendvon fully differentiated into filaments
tulipifera and anthers.
Worldwide, there are 7 gen-
era and about 220 species in the
family. The genera below are
native to North America. The
“£47 southern magnolia magnolia and tulip trees are na-
Magnolia grandifiora tive to eastern states, but mag-
nolias are often planted in West
ae Coast communities. Michelia is
cultivated as an ornamental tree
in some parts of the country.
Key Words: Broad-leaf trees with big tlowers with a cone-like center.
Liriodendron—tulip tree (2/1/0) * L. tulipifera. The tulip tree is an important bee tree in southern Appalachia, favored for
its tasty nectar (M. Williams). Some Native Americans ate the bark to expel worms and gave the seeds to children for
the same purpose. The tulip tree has also been used to reduce fevers, as a diuretic, and to treat rheumatic symptoms
(Weiner). The root has been used in Canada to take away the bitterness in brewing alcohol (Sturtevant).
Magnolia—magnolia (210/7/0) * The bark of the magnolia is known for its aromatic and astringent properties. A tea of the
bark is used medicinally as a diaphoretic, and for indigestion or diarrhea. Reportedly, drinking the tea can help break a
tobacco habit (Lust). The flowers are often very aromatic, and the wood is used for carving in Appalachia (M. Williams).
ae
Clade: Magnolia > Order: Laurel > Family: Laurel
stamens in
0 petals indera-benzoin
CW Le sassafras
be, —F)s\\ 7 albidum:

California bay tree BAS IY
Umbellularia californica (eau — :
| Patterns of the Laurel Family
Look for trees and shrubs with aromatic leaves, bark, and roots.
The fruit is a drupe, a fleshy fruit with a hard seed.
Laurel Family—Lauraceae
; If you have added bay leaves to your soup or eaten a cinnamon roll, then you know something about the
Laurel family. The vegetation is usually highly aromatic in a pleasant, spicy way. These are mostly evergreen, tropi-
cal trees and shrubs, with several genera across the southern states. A few deciduous, cold-tolerant shrubs and trees
are found farther north, such as Sassafras. Most genera have alternate leaves. Flowers are usually small, bisexual, and
develop in panicles (branching clusters). There are 6 (rarely 4) sepals in two whorls, typically greenish-yellow, yellow,
or white in color, and 0 petals. There are usually 9 stamens (anywhere from 3 to 12) appearing in whorls of 3. The
ovary is positioned superior and consists of a single carpel. It matures as a drupe, a fleshy fruit with a stony seed.
Worldwide, there are about 50 genera and 2,500 species. North America genera include pond spice (Glabraria),
lancewood (Nectandra or Ocotea) and Misanteca, plus the genera below. Bay leaves come from the European bay
laurel (Laurus nobilis), but our native genera are often used similarly.
Key Words: Highly aromatic, often evergreen trees and shrubs.
Cinnamomum—cinnamon, camphor tree (350/1/0) C. camphora. Introduced from the orient; the camphor tree now
grows wild along the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Florida. Cinnamon comes from bark of the cinnamon tree (C.
zeylanicum), mostly grown in India.
Lindera—spice bush (100/3/0) The fruits can be dried, powdered, and used as spice for spice cake, frosting, and as a gen-
eral “allspice” (Lincoff). A tea of the aromatic twigs and leaves can also be used as spice. Medicinally, the sap is high
in benzoin, which can be made into an ointment to help heal wounds (Cook). Benzoin or benzoic acid is listed as an
ingredient in many common healing ointments found in first aid kits.
Persea—ted bay, swamp bay, avocado (200/3/0) The avocado, P americana, is cultivated in southern California and Florida.
Red bay and swamp bay grow along the East Coast. .
Sassafras—sassafras (3/1/0) S. albidum. Unisexual flowers, with male and female flowers on separate bushes (dioecious).
Sassafras root bark was the first commercial product sent to Europe by the colonists. Sassafras leaves are a key ingredient
in gumbo. The leaves as well as the flowers and fruits make a nice tea. The root is recommended as a tea in traditional
medicine to help people transition between seasons, but also during life changes such as a new job or moving (Cook).
Sassafras contains a volatile compound called safrole, which was shown to be carcinogenic in studies with rats and mice
in the 1960s, leading to a ban by the FDA on the use of sassafras as a flavoring or food additive (Tyler). Later research
by James Duke debunked the earlier studies, but the ban is still in effect (Cook). Sassafras contains a compound similar
to ecstasy; excess consumption can lead to similar effects (Lincoff).
Umbellularia—California bay tree, Oregon myrtle (1/1/0) U. californica. Native to the West Coast. It can be used as a spice
like the true bay laurel, but use half the quantity. The roasted nuts are also edible. Some people get temporary headaches
from inhaling too much of the aroma, but the aroma is also used as a counterirritant to cure a severe headache. The bay
leaf headache typically dissipates in about ten minutes, taking the original headache along with it (Cook).
=)
Clade: Hornwort > Order: Hornwort > Family: Hornwort
Hornwort Family—Ceratophyllaceae
Hornworts are an ancient lineage that diverged from
an evolutionary line that lead to most modern flowering plants.
These are submerged or floating aquatic plants commonly found
in ponds, marshes, and slow-moving streams. The plants have
no roots, and may rot away on one end while growing on the
other, but sometimes anchor themselves into the sediment with
female branches or modified, root-like leaves. The leaves are whorled
flower around the main stem, with 3 to 10 leaves per whorl, which are
often divided and become brittle with age.
The flowers are small, inconspicuous, and submerged,
with the male and female flowers occurring separately on the
same plant (monoecious). Pollination takes place underwater.
The flowers are surrounded by 8 to 15 linear bracts (modified
leaves), but there are no sepals or petals. Male flowers have 3 to 50
stamens. Female flowers have a solitary, simple pistil. It matures
as a dry seed called an achene. Worldwide there is only 1 genus
ovary
and 6 species, with 3 species found in North America.
matures Many plants develop similar characteristics in aquatic
as an achene environments. Plants in other families with similar leaves include
water milfoil (Myriophyllum), mare's tail (Hippuris), and the
aquatic buttercup (Ranunculus aquatilis).
Key Words: Free-floating, submerged aquatic plants.
hornwort
Ceratophyllum . Ceratophyllum—hornwort (6/3/1) In the wild, the foliage and greens
demersum of hornworts are a valuable food source for migrating waterfowl
(Judd). Hornworts are often introduced to aquariums and ponds to
provide cover for fish. Some species excrete substances that inhibit
the growth of phytoplankton and blue-green algae. C. demersum,
native to North America, has become invasive in Australia and
New Zealand.
Hornwort Family E
54
Clade: Eudicots > Order: Buttercup > Family: Buttercup
Buttercup Family—Ranunculaceae
The Buttercup family is like a window back in time. While none
of today’s species were around 100 million years ago, the Buttercups and
other primitive families have retained many ancestral characteristics.
Buttercups are considered “simple” flowers because the floral parts—the
sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils—are all of an indefinite number and
separate from one another. Also, the stamens and pistils are spirally inserted
on a cone-like receptacle (which is often small and difficult to see). In
comparison, most modern plant families have reduced, specific numbers
of floral parts, occurring in rings, and the parts are often fused together.
Buttercups are “simple” from an evolutionary standpoint, but
the family includes some seeming complex flowers with spurred petals,
such as larkspur (Delphinium) and columbine (Aquilegia). The flowers
are considered “simple” because all the parts are independently attached.
In addition, the family is so variable that it might seem that the only
consistency is an apparent lack of a pattern. But look again. The pattern
is in the pistils.
Buttercup flowers are either regular or irregular and usually, but
not always bisexual. There are anywhere from 3 to 15 sepals, often colored
like petals, plus 0 to 23 actual petals, and often numerous stamens. There
are 3 to numerous simple pistils, which are positioned superior to the
other parts. Each pistil matures as an achene (a dry seed), or a follicle (a
capsule with a seam down one side), or rarely as a fleshy fruit, such as in tall buttercup
Ranunculus acris
baneberry (Actaea).
For the purposes of identification, look for multiple simple pistils,
usually with hooked tips, at the center of the flower, as illustrated on the
following page. (Flowers from most other plant families have only one
pistil, a compound unit formed from the fusion of several pistils into one
structure.)A flower with three or more pistils is very likely a Buttercup, but could potentially be confused with spe-
cies from the Rose subfamily of the Rose family. If you see multiple pistils and hooked tips, it is likely a Buttercup.
The hooked tips often persist as the ovary matures.
Worldwide, there are about 60 genera in the Buttercup family and about 2,500 species, including about
twenty-five genera in North America. Cultivated plants of the Buttercup family often have extra petals. These ad-
ditional petals were bred from the stamens.
Key Words: Dicot flowers with three or more simple pistils, usually with hooked tips.
The predominant property in the plants of the Buttercup family is an acrid protoanemonin glycoside oil.
Most of the species are listed as poisonous, but most are safe to taste. The taste is biting and acrid, stronger in some
plants than others. Taste it and spit it out. The acrid properties of the Buttercups are unstable and are destroyed by
drying or cooking, and very mild buttercups are edible as salad greens or potherbs. But be careful not to over do
even mild plants, as the residual acrid properties may cause mild inflammation of the kidneys or liver. Mucilaginous
plants can be ingested to counter-effect the acrid buttercups.
Medicinally, the acrid nature of the plants makes them great for stimulating poultices, similar to a “mustard
plaster.” These poultices can be used on bruises, aches, arthritis, or even mild paralysis to stimulate healing activity
inside, but be careful, because the poultices can cause blistering if left in place too long. The acrid quality is also
beneficial for getting rid of lice. Read more about acrid substances in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
WARNING: A number of plants in this family, especially Aconitum and Delphinium, contain concentrations
of toxic terpenoid alkaloids. Some of these plants can be used internally as heart and respiratory sedatives, and for
nervous disorders, antispasmodics, and general sedatives, becuase the alkaloids tend to depress the central nervous
system. These are toxic plants and should only be administered by a professional.
DD
Edible and Medicinal Properties of Buttercup Family Plants

Aconitum—monkshood (275/8/1) * Water hemlock from the Parsley family may be the most poisonous plant in North
America, but a species of monkshood (A. ferrox) from Nepal is considered the most poisonous plant in the world. Even
touching or smelling the plant can cause serious poisoning (Schauenberg). North American species of monkshood
are much less toxic, but still deadly poisonous (Lust). The root is the most toxic part. A tincture or liniment of the -
flowering plant may be used externally as an analgesic, if the skin is unbroken. It should not be used during pregnancy
(Moore). Monkshood should not be used internally, except under expert supervision.
Actaea—baneberry (25/8/1) * Children have been poisoned by eating the shiny red or white berries. Otherwise, baneberry is
similar to black cohosh (see Cimicifuga below), but apparently lacks the estrogenic compounds. A poultice or liniment
of the root is useful as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic for sprains and swellings (Moore).
Adonis—pheasant’s eye (26/3/2) Introduced. Contains cardiac glycosides (Geller), used for enlarged or strained heart
conditions (Kadans).
Anemone—anemone (200/22/9) * The plants can be used as an acrid poultice to irritate a closed wound to stimulate healing.
The tincture is used to slow and strengthen pulse and respiration (Moore). The juice in the nose can purge congestion
(Culpeper). Pasque flowers were segregated from Anemone into Pulsatilla.
Aquilegia—columbine (80/23/5) * The leaves or flowers are edible in a salad or steamed (Willard), but there is a risk of
toxicity (Tilford). The root, seeds and probably the leaves of some species are acrid and may be used raw for a stimu-
lating poultice (Sweet).
Caltha—marsh marigold (20/3/1) * Marsh marigold can be eaten as a salad or potherb (Harrington). It is acrid enough to
stimulate mucus flow throughout the body (Moore). C. palustris contains berberine (Densmore).
Cimicifuga—black cohosh, bugbane (12/5/0) This genus is now included within Actaea by many botanists. The root and
leaves of black cohosh (different from blue cohosh of the Barberry family) are valued as peripheral vasodilators and
for their anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and sedative properties. Black cohosh is used especially for dull aches and
muscle or menstrual cramping. The root also contains estrogenic compounds useful for lessening surges of the lutein-
izing hormone and the related hot flashes during menopause (Moore).
Clematis—clematis, sugarbowl, virgin’s bower (300/35/4) * Some species are woody vines. A tea of the plant acts as a
vasoconstrictor on the brain-lining, but also as a dilator on blood vessels. It is taken for migraine headaches (Moore,
Sweet). The plant is used externally as a stimulating poultice (Kloss, Moore, Willard).
Coptis—gold thread, canker root (15/4/1) * The roots of gold thread contain bitter berberine alkaloid, similar to its well
known and over-harvested cousin goldenseal (see Hydrastis below). Gold thread has a long history of use in treating
cold sores, hence its other common name.
Delphinium—larkspur, delphinium (360/67/13) ¢ A vinegar or rubbing alcohol tincture of the plant is used for lice. How-
ever, do not apply to highly irritated skin or the toxic alkaloids may be absorbed into the body (Moore).
Enemion—false rue anemone (6/5/0) Native to the Pacific states and the eastern half of North America.
Hepatica—liverleaf (1/1/0) H. nobilis. Native to the eastern third of North America. The leaves have three lobes, like the liver.
Hydrastis—goldenseal (1/1/0) H. canadensis. Goldenseal is native to the eastern states. It contains the bitter alkaloid ber-
berine, also found in Coptis (above), Xanthorhiza (below) and in the related Barberry family. A tea of the powdered
rootstock is astringent, antiseptic, diuretic and laxative. In my experience, a tea of the powdered root is a very effective
antiseptic and anti-inflammatory at the onset of a sore throat. The fresh plant is acrid. Snuffing the powder up the
nose will relieve congestion (Lust). It has a vasoconstrictor effect (Kadans). Excess consumption can over stimulate
the nervous system, producing nervous convulsions, miscarriage and an excessive build-up of white corpuscles in the
blood. Goldenseal is threatened from overharvesting, so it is better to substitute other plants with similar properties.
Myosurus—mousetail (15/5/2) Found throughout most of North America.
Pulsatilla—pasque flower (33/2/2) * Formerly included in Anemone. Pasque flowers are among the first blossoms of spring.
The plant has diaphoretic and diuretic properties. It contains depressant alkaloids and can be dangerous (Lust).
Ranunculus—buttercup (600/81/29) * The seeds and greens of some species of Buttercup are edible with boiling (Kirk).
The edibility depends on how acrid the plants are and how well this is removed through boiling. The plants are listed
as diaphoretic and antispasmodic (Lust).
Thalictrum—meadow rue (120/21/5) * The leaves of many species are edible raw or cooked. The root contains some
berberine, similar to goldenseal (Willard). A tea of the root is used for colds (Murphey), and a poultice is used for
rheumatism (Klein). Meadow rue is being studied as a possible cancer drug (Phillips).
Trautvetteria—false bugbane (1/1/1) T: caroliniensis. Native to the western and southeastern states.
Trollius—globe flower (30/2/1) * Like other members of the family, the root and plant of the globe flower have a rubefacient
property when fresh, but loses the property when dry.
Xanthorhiza—yellowroot (1/1/0) X. simplicissim. Yellowroot has a woody stem. It is native from Texas to Maine. The yellow
roots contain berberine, used medicinally much like Hydrastis (above). Excess consumption can be toxic. The roots
were used for dye by Native Americans.
56
coastal larkspur iif)

Delphinium
decorum
southem blue
monkshood
Aconitum
uncinatum
common
columbine
Aquilegia os:
vulgaris irregular flower
regular flower
water
buttercup
Ranunculus
aquatilis achene
(dry seed) Patterns of the
buttercup
Buttercup Family
Look for flowers with 3 or more
ls Ranunculus spp.
simple pistils with hooked tips. ——— &
globeflower N 7
Trollius laxus ;
pasqueflower
Pulsatilla spp.
pheasant’s eye
Adonis vernalis
creeping
spearwort
buttercup
Ranunculus
flammula
marsh marigold
Caltha palustris
bulbous buttercup
Ranunculus bulbosus
D7
Clade: Eudicots > Order: Buttercup > Family: Barberry
Barberry Family-Berberidacene
If you find a dicot plant or shrub with flower parts in multiples of three, then you may have a member of
the Barberry family—especially if there are multiple layers of sepals and petals. The flowers are regular and bisexual
and often bloom very early in spring. Some species have 2 or 3 small bracts (modified leaves) masquerading as sepals
on the back of a flower. There are usually 6 true sepals (varying from 4 to 15, rarely 0) and 6 petals (up to 12, rarely —
0), typically occurring in layers with 3 sepals or petals per layer. There are usually 6 or 9 stamens (up to 18, usually
in multiples of 3). The ovary is positioned superior and consists of a single carpel. It matures as a berry or a follicle
(a dry fruit opening along a single seam).
Worldwide, there are about 15 genera and 650 species. Taxonomists have expanded the traditional Barberry
family to include the Mayapple family, Podophyllaceae, as included here.
Key Words:
Dicot plants or shrubs with floral parts in 3s, often with multiple layers of sepals and petals.
Achlys—deer’s foot (3/2/0) No sepals or petals. Native to the Pacific states.
Berberis—barberry (600/10/1) * Generally, Berberis includes spiny shrubs with simple, deciduous leaves, while Mahonia
includes evergreen plants and shrubs with pinnate leaves consisting of 5 to 15 leaflets with spines along the edges.
However, neither description works for all species, and plants from the two genera are capable of hybridizing with each
other. Thus, many species are shuffled back and forth between these genera and may have duplicate names, such as
Mahonia aquifolium and Berberis aquifolium. In either genera the inner bark and root is a brilliant yellow, due to the
presence of an intensely bitter berberine alkaloid. See Mahonia for properties and uses.
Caulophyllum—blue cohosh (3/2/0) Native to the eastern half of North America, but not the southernmost states. Blue
cohos has a long history as a woman’s herb, especially as an emmenagogue to promote the flow of blood during men-
struation and to relieve cramping. The tea, taken during the last few weeks of pregnancy, can facilitate a smooth and
pain-free delivery (Hutchins).
Diphylleia—umbrellaleaf (3/1/0) D. cymosa. Native from Alabama to Virginia.
Jeffersonia—twinleaf (2/1/0) J. diphylla. Native to eastern North America.
Mahonia—barberry, Oregon grape, algerita (70/11/2) * The various species of Berberis and Mahonia produce edible, but
very sour berries which can be mixed with other berries to tame the flavor. With the addition of sugar, the berries are
excellent in jams and jellies and provide their own pectin.
Medicinally the yellow berberine alkaloid of the roots acts as a potent bitter stimulant and antiseptic/antibac-
terial. As a bitter substance, berberine is stimulating to the digestive tract, promoting gastric activity, bile production,
liver cleansing and acting as a laxative. By stimulating liver function it is considered a “blood purifier,” useful for the
venereal diseases syphilis and gonorrhea, as well as premenstrual syndrome (Hart); it calms a person by facilitating liver
function. Chewing the leaves may help acne (Sweet). This is again the result of increased liver function. ;
Because berberine is so intensely bitter, it stimulates the entire body and not just the digestive system. It opens
up the blood vessels (vasodilation) to lower blood pressure (Lust). Increased blood flow can stimulate involuntary
muscles, and so the Flathead Indians used berberine to stimulate delivery of the placenta during childbirth (Hart).
Berberine is not a narcotic alkaloid, but it is reported to have a Novocaine-like effect if you chew the root prior
to dental work (Bigfoot). As an antiseptic, berberine has been used externally and internally. Externally, it is a treatment
for cuts and wounds. The roots are cleaned, crushed and applied to the open injuries. Berberine is also useful to lower
fevers and inflammation (Moore). Any Berberis or Mahonia species are excellent substitutes for the over harvested and
now endangered goldenseal (Hydrastis) of the Buttercup family.
Methoxyhydrocarpin or MHC, found in Colorado's Fremont barberry, has proven useful against antibiotic-
resistant bacteria. MHC prevents bacteria from pumping the antibiotics, including berberine, out of the cells (Wohlberg).
Nandina—sacred bamboo (1/1/0) N. domestica. Introduced from Asia. Cultivated in the southern states, from Texas to
Virginia. It can become invasive.
Podophyllum—mayapple (6/1/0) P peltatum. Native from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic. The roots, leaves, and
stems are toxic, but the ripe, aromatic fruit is edible raw, cooked, or dried. It has a sweet and acid flavor. The unripe
fruit is strongly laxative, and the seeds are considered inedible. Learn more about harvesting, processing, and dining
on mayapples in Sam Thayer’s Nature's Garden.
Vancouveria—insideout flower (3/3/) Native from California to British Columbia.
58
Clade: Eudicots > Order: Buttercup > Family: Barberry
' umbrellaleaf
“3 Diphylleia
cymosa
fi
bracts ©
common barberry [i
Berberis vulgaris 9
Patterns of the
ge Sacred
bamboo Barberry Family
8 Nandina
& domestica
SA 6 stamens ex =
6 sepals and 6 petals~
in series of 3434+3+3
2
grape *
Mahonia @
aquifolium |
blue cohosh
mayapple \ Caulophyllum
Podophylium thalictroides
peltatum twinleaf
Jeffersonia
. diphyila
59
Clade: Eudicots > Order: Buttercup > Family: Poppy
superior ovary
~<a
= ~numerous
rY . stamens
,
4, 8, or 12 petals—
(sometimes 6)
—— 2-3 sepals
(shed early)
~alternate leaves
milky sap in stems
prickly poppy
Aq opium Argemone hispida
pig. Paper Patterns of the California poppy
bloodroot Poppy Family Eschscholzia californica
Sanguinania canadensis
Poppy Family—Papaveraceae
Watch for members of the Poppy family in flower beds. The leaves are alternate and they often have milky
sap in the stems. Most are herbs, but there are some shrubs and small trees in warm climates. Poppies have regular
and bisexual flowers, with 2 to 3 separate sepals (united in Eschscholzia), which often fall away as they open. There
are 4, 8, or 12 separate petals (sometimes 6), plus numerous stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists
of at least 2 (usually more) united carpels, as indicated by the number of stigmas fused to the top of the ovary. The
carpels are united to form a single chamber, which matures as a capsule containing many small seeds.
With the Fumitorys included as a subfamily, there are about 40 genera and 770 species worldwide. Many
Poppies contain narcotic alkaloids and acrid latex sap. Morphine, heroin, codeine, and opium are narcotics found
in Papaver somniferum. Read more about narcotic alkaloids in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Key Words: Petals in fours with numerous stamens and often milky sap.
Argemone—prickly poppy (30/15/1) * The seeds are edible like conventional poppy seed, but are cathartic in excess. The
acrid plant juice is used for burning off warts. A tea of the leaves or seeds is mildly narcotic. It is used externally as an
analgesic wash for sunburns, internally as a sedative and antispasmodic (Moore).
Chelidonium—celandine (1/1/1) C. majus. Native to Europe, but widely naturalized in the states. The sap contains narcotic
isoquinoline alkaloids that can be used medicinally as an analgesic pain reliever. It is considered toxic in excess.
Eschscholzia—California poppy (123/10/0) E. californica is the state flower of California. It contains narcotic isoquino-
line alkaloids. The tea is mildly sedative and analgesic, suitable even for children. Too much can result in a hangover
(Moore). The plant is said to be edible as a potherb (Sturtevant).
Glaucium—hornpoppy (25/1/1) G. flavum. Produces a sweet, edible oil (Sturtevant), which is also used in soap (Heywood).
Papaver—poppy (100/16/4) * The poppies include many ornamental flowers, plus P somniferum, from which we derive
opium, morphine and heroin (Smith). The poppies have edible seeds useful for seasoning, but minute quantities of
opium are present in some species. The flower petals can be boiled into a flavorful, but medicinal syrup—it is slightly
narcotic with sedative, hallucinogenic, and vasodilator effects. The latex is also narcotic and the potency varies from
one species to another (Fern).
Sanguinaria—bloodroot (1/1/0) S. canadensis. Bloodroot is a source of red dye. Medicinally, bloodroot contains narcotic
opium-like alkaloids (Fern) that depress the central nervous system; the plant or root acts as an expectorant in small
doses, but it is nauseating and emetic in larger amounts (Densmore). As a narcotic, the plant is sedative in effect, but
can be fatal in excess (Lust). It is used as an anesthetic and to dilate the blood vessels throughout the body, thereby
improving circulation, helping the bronchioles in an infection, and stimulating menstruation. Bloodroot contains
sanguinarine, which was once used as an anti-bacterial, anti-plaque agent in Viadent toothpaste. However, extended
use can lead to potentially precancerous lesions in the mouth, so it was discontinued. This plant should only be ad-
ministered by a qualified professional.
60
Clade: Eudicots > Order: Buttercup > Family: Poppy
Poppy Family
Fumitory Subfamily
golden corydalis 2 small sepals

Corydalis aurea 2 outer— &
fumary
“Pelee 2 inner=s—-
Fumania officinalis
irregular dicot flowers
Fumitory or Bleeding Heart Subfamily—Fumarioideae

Taxonomists reclassified the former Fumitory or Bleeding Heart family as a subfamily of the Poppy family.
By any name, the delicate flowers are always a delight to find. The flowers are irregular and bisexual with 2 scale-like
sepals and 4 petals. The outer petals spread above the narrower inner petals. The flowers usually have 6 stamens in
two groups of 3 on opposite sides of the pistil, but may have 4 stamens positioned opposite the petals. The ovary is
positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule or a 1-seeded
nut. Worldwide, there are about 16 genera and some 450 species. North American genera are listed below. The
‘Fumitories are rich in alkaloids, many with narcotic properties.
Key Words: Irregular dicot flowers with 2 sepals and 4 petals.
Adlumia—Allegheny vine (2/1/0) A. fungosa. Native from Manitoba to

Tennessee, east to the Atlantic.
Corydalis—corydalis (320/13/2) * The species of Corydalis contain narcotic
alkaloids to varying degrees, especially in the roots. The narcotic prop-
erties are used in the conventional ways for their analgesic, sedative,
antispasmodic and hallucinogenic properties and to slow the pulse
and dilate the bronchioles (Fern). Some species have been used. to
treat Parkinson’s disease. These plants are potentially dangerous and
should only be used by a trained professional (Lust).
Dicentra—bleeding heart, dutchman’s breeches (17/9/1) ¢ Bleeding heart
contains narcotic isoquinoline alkaloids useful for nervous system
disorders like paralysis and tremors and as an analgesic to relieve
pains such as a toothache (Moore). A poultice of the leaves is used as
a muscle rub. A tea of the root is reportedly diaphoretic and diuretic
in effect. The plant may cause dermatitis in some individuals (Fern).
Fumaria—fumitory (50/7/2) Introduced. The fresh plant may be used
dutchman's breeches
to curdle milk. It functions as a preservative and imparts a tangy Dicentra cucuilaria
taste. Remove the plant matter after curdling (Fern). The alkaloids
in fumitory are used for their bitter taste to stimulate the digestive
processes (Schauenberg).
61
Clade:.Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Saxifrage > Family: Witch Hazel —
American witchhazel
Hamamelis virginiana Patterns of the Witch Hazel Family
witchalder
‘Ss Fothergilla carolina
capsule
ovary with 2 carpels
4, 5 or numerous stamens
— okra | ™4 or 5 petals (sometimes 0)
Ovary matures as a woody mountain witchalder
capsule with bony seeds. 4 or 5 sepals (sometimes 0) Fothergilla major
Witch Hazel Family—Hamamelidaceae

The Witch Hazel family consists ofa handful of trees and shrubs with usually alternate leaves. The flowers can
be either bisexual or unisexual. There are 4 or 5 (sometimes 0) sepals, fused together at the base, and 4 or 5 (sometimes
0) separate petals, which are typically narrow and ribbon-like, plus often 4 or 5 stamens (or more, up to 32). The
ovary is positioned inferior or rarely superior and consists of 2 united carpels, as indicated by the number of styles.
Partition walls are present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a woody capsule that spreads open
from the top, typically releasing 1 or 2 bony seeds from each cell. Note that two or more flowers may be clustered
closely together, producing a more complex aggregation of woody
capsules, such as in the sweetgum tree (Liquidambar). Worldwide,
there are about 30 genera and 112 species in the Witch Hazel family.
North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Trees and shrubs with

two-chambered woody capsules and bony seeds.
Fothergilla—witchalder (4/2/0) Grows in the southeast, from Ten-

nessee to Florida.
Hamamelis—witch hazel (8/2/0) The seeds are reported to be edible
_ (Weiner), but there is some question about the validity of this
claim (Fern). Medicinally, the leaves and bark contain tannic acid.
Witch hazel has long been used as an astringent in the typical
ways, internally for sore throat and diarrhea, externally for stings,
minor burns, and hemorrhoids (Lust). Native Americans used a
tea of the leaves as a liniment for athletes (Weiner).
sweetgum
Liquidambar—sweetgum (5/1/0) L. styraciflua. Native from Texas
Liquidambar styraciflua
to New York and east to the Atlantic. Sweetgum has distinc-
tive tricolor leaves in the fall. The sap of the tree may be used Flowers grow in tight
as “chewing gum.” The gum is used medicinally as a drawing _“lusters in which the
poultice, also for sore throats. It is astringent and expectorant in ovaries fuse together
effect (Fern, Moerman). Sweetgums are sometimes split out with to form an aggregate
fruit called a “multiple.”
other genera into a separate family, Altingiaceae.
62
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Saxifrage > Families: Peony and Water Milfoil
,
Peony Family—Paeoniaceae Peony Family
Do you have a peony in your yard? These perennial plants or “soft shrubs”
send up fresh stems each year from their fleshy roots. Cultivated,peonies are com-
mon in older neighborhoods, where homeowners have split the root clusters and
shared them with others. Native, wild peonies grow in the West, found sparingly
from California to Montana.
Peonies have mostly basal, typically 3-parted leaves, with each leaflet often
being deeply lobed or divided yet again. Flowers are solitary or few in a cluster,
forming at the end of a stem. There are typically 5 separate sepals, often leathery
and sometimes unequal in size, plus separate 5 petals (sometimes up to 10). There
are numerous stamens, typically 50 to 150 per flower, which are often bred to
become extra petals in cultivated peonies. There are 3 to 5 separate simple pistils,
positioned superior and wholly separate or united only at the base, each producing
1 dry seed. Each pistil matures as a dry capsule with a seam down one side, known
as a follicle. The seeds are large and often black, typically with several seeds per
follicle. Worldwide there is just the 1 genus and about 25 species.
Key Words: Large flowers with lots of stamens and 3 to 5 simple pistils.
Paeonia—peony (25/4/1) * Native species are found from the Pacific Ocean to the Brown’s Peony
Rocky Mountains. Other species have been introduced to the eastern states. Paeonia brownii
Water Milfoil Family—Haloragaceae

Plants of the Water Milfoil family are mostly aquatic herbs with deeply divided
leaves, at least below water. The flowers are mostly unisexual with 4 separate sepals
and 0 or 4 separate petals (sometimes 2 or 3 of each). The petals, when present, may
also be interpreted as an extra set of sepals. There are usually 4 or 8 (sometimes less)
stamens. The ovary is positioned inferior and consists of 2 to 4 united carpels with
the partition walls present, forming an equal number .of chambers. It matures form-
ing one nutlet from each chamber, or sometimes drupe-like, meaning that it is fleshy
with a stony seed. ;
Worldwide, there are about 8 genera igs
and 150 species. North American genera Bs Gide
are listed below. A number of unrelated \ CA
plants have adapted to aquatic habitat N
with finely divided leaves. Plants that
might be confused with the Water Milfoil
family include Ranunculus aquatilis of the
Buttercup family and Limnophila of the
Plantain family, as well as some species of
Eurasian water milfoil Ze the Bladderwort and Hornwort families.
Myriophyllum spicatum
The flowers, when present, will help to
distinguish these plants. Family
Milfoil
Water
Key Words: Aquatic plants with finely dissected,
submerged leaves and greenish flowers.
Myriophyllum—water milfoil (69/13/3) Native and introduced species are
found across North America. The Eurasian water milfoil (7. spicatum)
has become invasive in many North American rivers. _ h 4
Proserpinaca—mermaid weed (3/3/0) Native from Texas to Ontario, east to rearon ee i mermaid weed
the Atlantic. Some species are grown as aquarium plants. Proserpinaca palustris
G3
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Saxifrage > Family: Stonecrop
goldmoss
stonecrop
1 or 2 times as many
Sedum acre
stamens as petals ovary of 3 or more
simple pistils
(apocarpus)
unisexual
chalk 4 or 5 sepals and petals

liveforever
(sometimes 30 of each)
Dudleya
pulverulenta
4 canyon liveforever
Patterns of the \ Dudleya cymosa
Stonecrop Family
These are small, very succulent
plants typically found in exposed,
grainy soils or rock outcroppings *
in mountains and deserts.
Stonecrop Family—Crassulaceae
If you've ever seen a hen and chicks plant (Sempervivum) then you have already met one member of the
Stonecrop family. These are fleshy, succulent herbs with regular, bisexual flowers. There are typically 4 to 5 (sometimes
30) separate sepals and an equal number of petals, also separate. There may be as many or double the number of
stamens as petals. There are 3 or more simple pistils, positioned superior and wholly separate or united only at the
base, each maturing as a dry seed.
Worldwide, there are 35 genera and 1,500 species, including 9 genera in North America. Many are cultivated
as ornamentals, including: Aeonium, Cotyledon, Crassula, Dudleya, Echeveria, Kalanchoe, Sedum, and Sempervivum.
Key Words: Small succulent plants with 3 or more simple pistils.
Crassula (including Tillaea)—jade plant, pygmyweed (195/9/2) The jade plant (C. ovata), and many other cultivated spe-
cies from this genus are native to South Africa. North American species are primarily found in the West and South.
Diamorpha—elf orpine (1/1/0) D. smallii. Native from Alabama to Virginia.
Dudleya—liveforever (45/45/0) Dudleya is native to Arizona, California, and Baja California. The genus includes many
plant formerly included in Echeveria.
Echeveria—desert savior (150/1/0) E. strictiflora. Native to Texas. Other species are native to Mexico and Central America.
They are sometimes cultivated in the states. Some species resemble Sempervivum.
Graptopetalum—leatherpetal (19/2/0) Native to Arizona and New Mexico.
Hylotelephium—stonecrop (33/4/0) Native and introduced species, primarily
in the eastern third of North America.
Lenophyllum—coastal stonecrop (7/1/0) L. texanum. Native to Texas.
Rhodiola—stonecrop (60/3/2) This genus is sometimes merged with Sedum.
Sedum—stonecrop (420/46/6) * The plants are edible as a salad green or potherb.
Medicinally, the plants are mucilaginous and mildly astringent, useful for
minor burns, insect bites and skin irritations (Tilford). It is a safe laxative
for children (Moerman). A European species, S. acre, is strongly acrid and
may cause blistering. It contains alkaloids and has been used medicinally 5s iat abe
for hypertension and epilepsy (Schauenberg). Sempervivum marmoreum
64
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Saxifrage > Family: Gooseberry
Gooseberry Family—Grossulariaceae
I remember, as a child, collecting f
gooseberries down in a field by my f
Grandmother's house. We placed tarps
under the bushes and beat the berries
out with a stick. At home, we floated
away the leaves and made delicious
gooseberry pie and jam. ( Zs Patterns of the
Gooseberries and currants
have regular, bisexual flowers, usu- alternate We Sa Gooseberry Family
leaves
ally about 1/4-inch in diameter. 2 styles
The blossoms are yellow, white,
greenish or sometimes red. The
?
flowers have 5 united sepals
and 5 separate petals (rarely 4
of each). There are 5 stamens,
alternate with the petals. The
pistil has an inferior ovary
consisting of 2 carpels, as
indicated by the 2 styles. The positioned
carpels are united to form a inferior
single chamber, which ma-
tures as a berry with several to
numerous seeds.
As you become familiar
with these shrubs, you will recog-
nize them by their distinctive leaves
alone. Note that ninebark (Physo-
carpus) of the Rose family has similar
leaves. Worldwide, there is only 1 genus leaves palmately lobed,
usually with 5 main veins
and about 200 species of gooseberries and
currants.
gooseberry
Canadian gooseberry Ribes spp.
Ribes oxyacanthoides
Key Words: Bushes with palmate leaves.

Translucent berries with attached sepals.
Ribes (including Grossularia)—currants, gooseberries (150/65/11) ¢ All currants
and gooseberries have edible fruit, but some species are rank in odor and
flavor. I can pick a quart of gooseberries per hour by hand or three quarts
per hour by beating the berries off with a stick onto a tarp.
Medicinally, the leaves, bark, and roots are largely diaphoretic, astrin-
gent, and diuretic, often used to bring down fevers. The jelly can be used as
a demulcent for sore throats or burns. A Russian study has shown that unripe
gooseberries can prevent degeneration of body cells, which may stave off ill-
ness and aging. The green berries also counteract the effect of spoiled foods
and help to remove toxins from the body. Black currant seeds contain omega
3 and omega 6 essential fatty acids, similar to evening primrose (Oenothera)
(Willard, Tilford). I often find gooseberry bushes still loaded with shriveled
berries in mid-winter. I crave them that time of year, and I feel their revital-
izing effect on my body.
65
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Saxifrage > Family: Saxifrage
oblong pistil with 2 styles early mendes, ovary with 2 carpels_ “7
a
Patterns of the ‘ce
| Senlege ae ra
Many Saxifrages starry
have palmate, saxifrage
basal leaves. Saxifraga
stellaris
white
mountain
saxifrage
Saxifraga
paniculata
Saxifrage Yi, ee
ie you spend much time in the mountains then you have probably encountered plants of the Saxifrage fam-
ily. You will often find them on thin soils—pretty much growing right out of the rocks—as well as along moist, high
mountain creeks. Most have rounded, variously lobed basal leaves. The flowers of the Saxifrage family are typically
small, often less than 1/4 inch in diameter, with a few eye-catching individuals approaching 1/2 an inch. The flowers
are regular and bisexual, with typically 5 separate sepals and 5 (rarely 0) separate petals. There are 5 or 10 stamens. The
ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 (rarely 5) carpels, as indicated by the same number of styles. Partition
walls are usually present, forming an equal number of chambers. In most cases, it is an oblong-shaped ovary with 2
styles, one of the better patterns for identifying.this family. It matures as a capsule with a few or numerous seeds per
carpel. Worldwide, there are about 30 genera and 630 species. Twenty genera are found in North America.
Key Words: Small plants with small flowers, parts in fives, plus an oblong pistil with 2 styles.
Astilbe—astilbe, false spirea (22/3/0) Imported species of Astilbe are often cultivated and hybridized.
Boykinia—brookfoam (8/6/1) Drink a tea of the dried plant for lung hemorrhages or tuberculosis (Moerman).
Chrysosplenium—water carpet (57/6/1) 0 petals. The plant is edible as a salad green (Sturtevant).
Darmera—Iindian rhubarb (1/1/0) D. peltata (a.k.a Peltiphyllum peltatum). Native to the southwestern states.
Heuchera—alumroot (50/40/4) * The leaves are edible as a potherb, but may be mildly astringent (Willard). Medicinally,
the root contains up to 20% tannin (Tilford), for a very potent astringent, hence the common name “alumroot.” For
more information read the section on tannic acid in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Leptarrhena— \eptarrhena (1/1/1) L. pyrolifolia. The tea is taken for flu. A poultice is used on wounds and sores (Moerman).
Lithophragma—woodland starur(12/12/4) * The root of a California species was chewed by the Indians for colds or stomach
aches (Moerman).
Mitella—miterwort (20/10/6) A tea of the plant was used medicinally by Native Americans as powerful laxative to purge
thé system or as an emetic to cause vomiting, or as drops for sore eyes. The crushed leaves were wrapped in cloth and
placed in the ears for earaches (Moerman).
Parnassia—grass of parnassus (11/11/4) * Parnassia is now considered part of the mostly tropical Staff Tree family, Celastraceae.
Saxifraga—saxifrage (350/70/19) * Brook saxifrage is very common along streams at high elevations; it is easy to gather in
quantity for use as a salad green or potherb. It is pretty much tasteless, which makes it useful for taming bitter herbs
in a salad. Other species of saxifrage also appear to be edible and rich in vitamin C.
Telesonix—brookfoam (1/1/1) T. jamesit. Native to the Rocky Mountains.
Tiarella—false miterwort (6/5/2) Native Americans used a tea of the roots for diarrhea in children. The fresh leaves were
chewed as a cough medicine (Moerman). ;
66
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Grape > Family: Grape
Patterns of the Grape Family These are vining plants with

tendrils and clusters of berries.
| flower bud
riverbank grape
Vitis riparia, i, 4 — 4-5 petals often
united at the tip
_— petals may fall

away as the
flower opens
(eS
ey
superior ovary
with 2 chambers Virginia creeper
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
Grape Family— Vitaceae

If you can recognize a grape, then you can identify the members of the Grape family with their climbing
vines and tendrils and the distinctive clusters of berries. The leaves are alternate, forming opposite from the tendrils
and flowers. Flowers are regular and may be bisexual or unisexual. There are 4 or 5 small sepals, plus 4 or 5 petals,
which are sometimes united at the tips, falling away as the flower opens. There are 4 or 5 stamens. The ovary is posi-
tioned superior and consists of 2 (rarely 3 to 6) united carpels. Partition walls are present, forming an equal number
of chambers. It matures as a berry with 1 to 2 seeds per chamber. Worldwide, there are about 14 genera and 800
species. North America genera are listed below. Most members of the Grape family have edible leaves, stems, sap,
and berries. The vegetation is often mildly astringent.
Key Words: Vining plants with tendrils and berries.
Ampelopsis—blueberry climber (20/4/0) Found from New Mexico to New Hampshire. The berries of the various species
of Ampelopsis are reported to be edible raw or cooked, but poor in taste. The stems, leaves and leaf buds of at least one
species are edible (Fern).
Cissus—sorrelvine (350/3/0) Found across the southern states from California to Florida.
A tea of the plant was used by Native Americans as a liver aid for jaundice. Cordage
can be made from the vines (Moerman).
Parthenocissus—Virginia creeper, woodbine (15/4/1) * Native and introduced species are
found throughout North America, except western Canada and Alaska. The berries
contain oxalic acid and can damage the kidneys. Excess consumption could be fatal
(Tull). The bark and twigs have astringent and expectorant properties, often used as
a tea for colds.
Vitis—grapes (70/19/1) * Wild grapes may be used like cultivated varieties. I grow both frost grape
in the greenhouse attached to my house. The vines grow up to ten feet a year, andI _Vitis vulpina
have to constantly prune them back. The tender, young leaves can be added to salads ye
or sandwiches or used as wraps for making dolmas, often stuffed with rice, chopped
vegetables, and minced meats.
Medicinally, a tea of the leaves is helpful for the pancreas, heart, and circula-
tion. The leaves can be used as a poultice for blisters on the feet (Bigfoot). Grape seed
extract (typically from V. vinifera) contains powerful antioxidants called gallic esters
of proanthocyanidins. Their ability to fight free radicals is reportedly twenty times :
stronger than vitamin C and fifty times stronger than vitamin E. The extract is also
taken to maintain capillary integrity. It is especially helpful to bring increased blood
flow to:strained eyes from too many hours staring at a computer (Amrion, Inc.).
67
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Geranium > Family: Geranium
Geranium Family—Geraniaceae
Cultivated geraniums (Pelargonium and Monsonia) are common as houseplants in northern latitudes, and
often grown outdoors south of the frost belt. The plants are easily propagated from cut stems inserted into moist
soil. The flowers are regular and bisexual with 5 separate sepals and 5 separate petals. Some varieties have been bred _
to produce additional layers of petals. There are 5, 10, or 15 stamens. The styles of the pistil are fused together, but
not the stigma lobes. The 5-parted stigma spreads out to form a distinctive star-like pattern amidst the stamens, but
only after the stamens have lost their pollen, to avoid self-pollination. After fertilization, the pistil continues to grow
and looks like a needle emerging from the center of the blossom.
The ovary is positioned superior. As indicated by the number of stigma lobes, it consists of 5 united carpels.
Partition walls are present, forming an equal number of chambers. The ovary matures as a schizocarp, a dry fruit
that splits apart into individual carpels (mericarps) when dry. The styles remain attached to the individual carpels
and peel away together, often curling back from the bottom up. There are one or two seeds per chamber.
Worldwide, there are about 7 genera and 750 species. Members of this family contain significant quantities
of tannic, ellagic, and gallic acids, making them quite astringent. The roots are especially acidic.
Key Words: Flower parts in fives with a needle-like pistil and a five-parted stigma.
Erodium—stork’s bill (75/9/1) * Native and introduced spe-
Ovary matures as a schizocarp— cies are widespread across North America. The young
a dry fruit that splits apart at the carpels. leaves are edible as a salad green or potherb (Duke)
In some species, like this geranium, the style of before becoming too astringent. The roots are
the pistil curls back as it dries, helping to release the seeds.
also edible. Warm days with freezing nights
ovary with 5 carpels may cause the plant to accumulate toxic
5, t00r 15 stamens concentrations of nitrates (Bigfoot).
Medicinally, it is a mild astringent
ron Pp petals,
f and diuretic (Moore).
4ale 5 sepals, Geranium—wild geranium
~ 2.
(300/33/6) * Native and intro-
duced species are widespread
across North America. Gera-
nium is astringent, contain-
ing tannic and gallic acid,
most potent in the root.
The powdered root is used
as a poultice for draw-
5-chambered ovary
with 1-2 seeds per carpel ing out pus and soothing
inflammation or to stop
w \
Dy bleeding. The roots or
leaves are used in tea for
sore throats, as an enema
for bleeding piles or hem-
orrhoids, or as a douche
for vaginitis (Moore). The
stems of the sticky geranium
(G. viscosissimum) are covered
with antibacterial resins useful
for protecting injured tissues
(Klein).
Pelargonium—cultivated ge-
ranium (250/9/0) ¢ Intro-
duced. Some species have
stork’s bill become naturalized in Cali-
Patterns of the Erodium cicutarium fornia. The leaves are edible
Richardson's geranium
Geranium richardsonii
Geranium Family (Sturtevant, Fern), and scented
geraniums can be used for
culinary purposes.
68
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Myrtle > Family: Loosestrife
Loosestrife Family—Lythraceae
If you have seen a marshland of tall, skinny
plants with lots of pink-purple flowers, then you
shrubby i
have likely met 4 prominent member of the Loose- yellowcrest Guy
strife family. Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) Heimia ¢
was introduced as an ornamental plant from Europe Salicifolia
in the late 1800s. Its square stems and opposite —_—_ Ms 4 SS y, purple
, loosestrife
leaves may mislead you to think that it isa member Lythrum
of the Mint family, until you examine the flowers. So 4, 6, or 8 petals salicaria
< ) (sometimes0)
Purple loosestrife propagates quickly via spreading
roots and prolific seed production. It has taken over
stamens in
swamps from coast to coast, altering ecology and two series
reducing habitat for native species. Any small or of different
lengths
isolated patches should be reported to the landowner
or public agency in charge of the land.
In northern latitudes, members of the
Loosestrife family are herbs, while some tropical
species are trees. These plants have opposite or
whorled leaves. They have regular, bisexual flowers
with 4, 6, or 8 sepals and the same number of pet-
als (sometimes absent). There are typically twice
as many stamens as petals, forming two circles of
different lengths.
The pistil is misleading at first, because it
seems to have an inferior ovary. However, it is an
illusion due to the deep floral cup. Sepals and petals
attach below the ovary, so it is positioned superior These plants
(or halfway in between in some species). The ovary often have
consists of 2 to 6 carpels with the partition walls squarish stems
present, forming an equal number of chambers. It with opposite or
whorled leaves.
matures as a capsule with several to numerous seeds. Flowers have a deep
Most plants in this family are adapted to damp soils. floral cup with stamens
Worldwide, there are about 300 genera and of different lengths in two
600 species. The henna tree (Lawsonia) is the source series.
of red-orange dyes often used for temporary hair Patterns of the Loosestrife Family
color and body art. Crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia) is
cultivated for its long lasting flowers. Tannins and alkaloids are common in this family (Zomlefer). North American
genera are listed below.
Key Words: Twice the number of stamens as petals, in two series—short and tall.
Ammannia—tredstem (25/4/1) Native throughout the U.S. The seeds are edible (Moerman).
Cuphea—cigar flower (275/7/0) Cigar flower is found in the southern and eastern states.
Decodon—swamp loosestrife (1/1/0) D. verticillatus. Native to wetlands in the eastern third of the continent.
Heimia—shrubby yellowcrest (3/1/0) H. salicifolia. Shrubby yellowcrest is native to Texas.
Lythrum—loosestrife (35/11/2) * The cooked leaves are edible and rich in calcium. Medicinally, the plant is highly astrin-
gent. A tea of the plant is used internally for diarrhea, excessive menstruation and internal bleeding. Externally, the
tea is used as a wash for wounds. The dried, powdered plant is used to stop bleeding (Fern, Lust). Note that there are
other plants called “loosestrife” in the Primrose family.
Punica—pomegranate (2/1/0) * P granatum. Pomegranates were originally native to Iran, but are now cultivated in warm
climates around the world. They were formerly segregated into their own family, Punicaceae.
Rotala—trotala (45/3/1) Native throughout most of the U.S., plus eastern and western Canada.
Trapa—weater caltrop (3/1/0) Introduced. Invasive in northeastern waterways.
69
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Myrtle > Family: Evening Primrose
Evening Primrose Family—Onagraceae

The delicate flowers of this family have mostly regular, bisexual flowers
with 4 separate sepals (sometimes colored like petals) and 4 separate petals
4 petals (rarely 2, 3, or 5 of each). There are an equal number or twice as many sta- _
RY 4 or 8 stamens
4 sepals mens as petals. It has a compound pistil with styles fused together, but not
* ii 4-parted
stigma
the stigma lobes. Note the distinctive 4-parted stigma in the illustration, an
essential pattern for recognizing this family.
The styles of the pistil are fused together, but not the stigma lobes. As
indicated by the number of stigma lobes, the ovary consists of 4 (rarely 2 or
5) united carpels. The partition walls are present, forming an equal number
of chambers. The ovary is positioned inferior, within a floral cup (hypan-
ovary inferior thium). The ovary matures as a capsule with many seeds, or sometimes as a
berry or drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed).
Patterns of the Worldwide, there are about 20 genera and 650 species. North American
Evening Primrose Family genera are listed below. Some species of evening primrose (Oenothera) bloom
in the evening to be pollinated by moths after dark. The ornamental Fuchsia
and Lopezia are members of this family. Taxonomic reshuffling has muddied the who's who of this family, as noted
in individual entries below. Plants of this family are mostly edible, with astringent, mucilaginous, and antispasmodic
properties.
Key Words: Flower parts usually in fours, including a four-lobed stigma.
Calylophus—sundrops (6/6/1) Formerly included in Oenothera. Native to most of North America, except the coast states.
Camissonia—suncups, evening primrose (58/58/7) ¢ Plants of this genus were formerly included within Oenothera and are
labeled as such in many books. All Camissonia are native to western North America. Newer sources have adapted to
the new name, but taxonomists are now splitting this genera apart into yet newer ones.
Chamerion—fireweed (8/2/2) * Our fireweeds were formerly included within Epilobiumas E. angustifolium and E. latifolium.
The new genus has become fairly well accepted, but not universally embraced by all taxonomists.
The common name, fireweed, comes from its tendency to colonize bare ground after a disturbance such as a
forest fire or a volcanic eruption. The pith of the plant is edible and sweet (Angier). The young leaves and shoots are
edible as a potherb and mildly mucilaginous, but also bitter and astringent. A strong tea is used asa mild laxative and
to settle the stomach (Tilford). Fireweed is useful internally for sore throat and ulcers, and externally for burns and
other skin irritations. The flowers were reportedly rubbed on rawhide for waterproofing, and the powdered core of the
plant will somehow help protect the hands and face from the cold. It prevents the stinging sensation when rewarming
the skin (Willard). The fibrous bark of the stalk is a great material for making string. (See Participating in Nature.)
Circaea—enchanter’s nightshade (7/3/1) 2 sepals, 2 petals, 2 stamens. Found throughout most of North America. Unrelated
to the Nightshade family.
Clarkia—clarkia (40/40/2) ¢ The seeds are edible (Sweet).
Epilobium (including Boisduvalia and Zauschneria)—willowherb (183/40/10) * The plants somewhat resemble young wil-
lows, hence the common name. Fireweed (Chamerion) was formerly included in this genus.
Gaura (including Stenosiphon)—beeblossom (22/22/2) * The flowers may be somewhat irregular. All species are native to
North America.
Gayophytum—ground smoke (8/8/5) Native to western North America.
Ludwigia (including Jussiaea)—primrose-willow (85/30/0) Native and introduced species are found throughout North
America, except the Northern Rockies.
Ocenothera—evening primrose (125/65/9) * The seeds are edible (Olsen), although they seem quite astringent. The carrot-
like tap root, especially of O. biennis, is edible cooked. Collect the roots of the first-year plant in the fall or early spring.
The roots have a biting flavor, which may be minimized by boiling in several changes of water. The young leaves and
shoots are edible as a salad or potherb (Harrington).
Medicinally, the plant contains mucilage and tannins (Lust). The seeds contain tryptophan, potassium nitrate,
and the essential oils linoleic and gamma-linoleic acid. Gamma-linoleic acid has a regulatory effect on systemic fatty
acid imbalances and metabolism in the liver (Tilford), also useful for lowering cholesterol (Klein). Tryptophan is com-
monly used as an over-the-counter sedative. The sprouts also contain alpha-linoleic acid (Duke, Tyler). The fibrous
bark of the stalk is a great material for making string (see Participating in Nature for instructions).
70
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Myrtle > Family: Evening Primrose
Evening Primrose Family ay 4-chambered ovary
cross-section
of flower ¢
common \
evening primrose Wf
Oenothera biennis
4 or 8 stamens
pinkfairy clarkia
4 petals i
Clarkia pulchella
pink evening / {7 ee ON
primrose {4 fe SY —4 sepals
Oenothera ¥ es ee
speciosa
large-flower biennial «7!

primrose-willow beeblossom 4
Ludwigia grandiflora Gaura biennis
a
i
fireweed |
Chamerion angustifolium
(Epilobium angustifolium)
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Caltrop > Family: Caltrop
Patterns of the Caltrop Family

\\ h pinnate
WY | leaf
FHV) opposite
hr
SY > —
ia
5 petals 5 sepals— C=)
" (3)
5-chambered ovary ©)
matures as a capsule__
lignum-vitae with 2 or more seeds
Guaiacum officinale er carpel. puncture vine|
P P Tribulus terrestris
Caltrop Family—Zygophyllaceae
Have you ever pulled thorns from your bicycle tires, shoes, or bare feet? If you live in the South, then you
may have encountered the troublesome seeds of the puncture-vine (Tribulus terrestris). Plants of the Caltrop family
have opposite, usually pinnately divided leaves. They are usually herbs or shrubs, but a few are trees. The Caltrops
are largely adapted to warm climates and deserts. They are rare in the northern latitudes. A typical flower from this
family is regular and bisexual, with 5 separate sepals and 5 separate petals (rarely 4 of each), and either 5, 10, or 15
stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 5 united carpels with the partition walls present, forming
an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule with 2 or more seeds per cell, or rarely as a drupe (a fleshy fruit
with a stony seed). Worldwide there are about 26 genera and 200 species. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Desert plants with parts in fives, and opposite, usually pinnately divided leaves.
Fagonia—fagonbushes (40/1/0) F californica. Native to the desert southwest.
Guaiacum—lignum vitae (6/3/0) Native to Texas and Florida.
Kallstroemia—Arizona poppy (17/7/0) Native to the southern half of the U.S. The plant is astringent. A tea of the plant
is used externally as an eyewash and internally for diarrhea or excess menstruation (Moore).
Larrea—chaparral, creosote bush (5/1/0) ¢ L. tridentata. Native to the desert Southwest. Some individual plants are more
than 10,000 years old. Chaparral has a sticky resin containing a potent antioxidant called nordihydroguaiaretic acid, or
NDGA. It is especially effective at preserving fats and oils. The substance inhibits cellular metabolism. For many years
it was thought to inhibit cancer, but new studies indicate that it can also stimulate it. Chaparral is used as an antiseptic
for cuts and wounds, as an antioxidant and to treat liver and blood disorders (Bigfoot, Hutchins, Moore). A tea of the
plant is strong and repulsive to many people. It tastes like water from an old garden hose to me. Herbal use (or abuse)
of chaparral has led to some cases of liver damage in recent years (Tilford). When NDGA was fed to mosquitoes it
lengthened the average lifespan from 29 to 45 days (Tyler).
Peganum—Syrian rue, African rue (5/2/0) Syrian rue is an introduced weed from southwest Asia. It is now common in
many western states. Traditionally classified within Zygophyllaceae, taxonomists have recently reclassified Peganum as a
member of the distantly related Nitre Bush family, Nitrariaceae. The plant is reported to have an awful taste. A tea of
the plant is used for many skin conditions and also to strengthen the heart while decreasing blood pressure (Moore).
The seeds contain psychoactive alkaloids (Smith).
Tribulus—puncture vine (20/2/1) * Puncture vine is an introduced weed. The young shoots, leaves and seed capsules may
be cooked and eaten, but it is considered an emergency food only. Medicinally, the seeds or leaves can be used in tea
to reduce blood cholesterol and improve heart function. The tea is also used as a diuretic to dissolve urate deposits and
therefore relieve pain from arthritis and gout, but excess dosage can harm the kidneys (Bigfoot, Moore).
Zygophyllum—bean caper (80/1/1) Z. fabago. Introduced. The flowers are used as a substitute for capers (Sturtevant).
7a.
Clade: Eudicots:/ Rosids > Order: Woodsorrel > Family: Woodsorrel
‘Woodsorrel Family— Oxalidaceae

AV
If you celebrate St. Patrick’s Day, then you will like the “5 separate petals
Woodsorrel family. Also known as “shamrocks,” the little green G|
10 stamens !
leaves (or cut-outs like them) are seen everywhere when the Irish MW! %
spirit is in the air. Woodsorrels could be mistaken for clover | woodsorrel
| Oxalis acetosella
(Trifolium) from the Pea family, with its three-parted leaves,
but Woodsorrels are delicate plants full of acidic, oxalate
juice, and the flowers are very different. The flowers are
solitary, regular, and bisexual with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and
10 stamens. The length of the stamens may vary.
The ovary is positioned superior and consists
of 5 united carpels, as indicated by the 5 styles. Parti-
tion walls are present, forming an equal number of
chambers. The ovary matures as an explosive capsule.
Worldwide, there are about 6 genera and
800 species. Only Oxalis is native to North America.
The star fruit (Averrhoa carambola) is a tropical plant
included in the Woodsorrel Family or sometimes
split out into its own, Averrhoaceae.
Plants with oxalic acid have been used in
external cancer remedies to literally etch away an shamrock ‘
offending tumor. One recipe suggests fermenting the leaves €SS
bruised, oxalate-rich leaves in a crock-pot in the ground
or 6 to 8 weeks. The resulting black salve is placed on
the tumor and left in place until it draws out the cancer
and falls off. It is reported to be extremely painful (Cum-
mings).
Key Words: Small plants with shamrock leaves

and flower parts in fives.
Oxalis—woodsorrel, shamrock (800/31/2) * Oxalic acid gives a

tart, lemon-like flavor. The leaves can be eaten as a trail nibble, used
sparingly in salads, cooked as a sour soup (Lincoff), or steeped and chilled for ice-tea. Some species have edible, tuber-
ous roots (Zomlefer). Medicinally, oxalic acid is an irritating stimulant to the digestive system, helpful for digestive
problems. It is used externally as an astringent wash for skin problems. Read more about oxalic acid in the Medicinal
Properties section of this book.
“On“y aXe
@
f / x een
creeping woodsorrel
Oxalis corniculata
73
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Malpighi > Family: Saint John’s Wort
Saint John’s Wort Family—Aypericaceae

If you've been troubled by depression then you may be delighted to learn about the Saint John’s Wort family.
Saint John’s wort (Hypericum
perforatum) is a well-known ovary with 3 carpels
herbal alternative to antide-
pressants. North American
members of this family are ~~4 or 5 sepals ¥
perennial herbs with simple,
opposite leaves. The leaves SS x p
are often covered with dark
glands or clear dots.
The flowers are
regular and bisexual with 4
or 5 sepals and 4 or 5 petals.
The petals are usually yel-
low, but may be tinged with
red or orange spots. At least
one species has pink blos-
soms. There are 10 or more
stamens. The ovary is posi-
tioned superior and consists
of 3 to 5 united carpels, as
indicated by the same num-
ber of styles. Partition walls
Saint John’s wort
are present, forming an equal Hypericum concinnum
number of chambers. The
ovary matures as a capsule.
Worldwide, there
are about 9 genera and 356
species in the family, mostly
Patterns of the
of Hypericum. North Ameri- LY©
2 1] \g
Saint John’s Wort Family
can genera are listed below. 7 \)
i
Hypericaceae is often consid- / a ® |/common Saint John’s wort
\ (\ Hypericum perforatum
ered a subfamily of the larger
Clusiaceae (also known as
Guttiferae).
Key Words: Yellow flowers with parts in fours or fives. Opposite leaves with clear dots.
Ascyrum—St. Peterswort, St. Andrew’s cross (5/5/0) These flowers are found in the eastern and southern states. The genus
is now considered part of Hypericum.
Crookea—flatwoods St. John’s wort (1/1/0) C. microsepala. Two narrow petals and two broad petals. Native to Georgia and
Florida. It has been renamed Hypericum microsepalum.
Hypericum—S. John’s wort (350/25/4) * The leaves of some species are edible as salad (Sweet), and the plants were dried by
Native Americans and used as meal (Hutchins). A tea of the plant is antispasmodic, nervine, expectorant, astringent and
diuretic. It is used for nervous conditions such as insomnia and bed-wetting (Lust). A pigment in the leaves and flower
dots, called hypericin, is used as an antidepressant alternative. Saint John’s wort has been demonstrated to significantly
increase the healing of burns. Internal use of the plant may cause temporary sensitivity to intense sunlight (Klein).
H. perforatum, shown above, is an import from Europe and an invasive weed on this continent. It is being
planted as a crop in some places and sprayed as a weed in others. Native plants are threatened by habitat loss to invasive
species like this. Spraying the invasives with herbicides also kills native species. It would make a lot more sense to stop
both the spraying and the planting of St. John’s wort in favor of intensive wild harvesting to control its population,
with subsidies if necessary. The savings from not buying herbicides would help cover the cost of any subsidy.
74
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Malpighi > Family: Violet
\i Patterns of the Violet Family ay

4
a irregular flowers
with 5 menage petals
green \‘e
Hybanthus linearifolius
5 separate petals 3
WZ
5 separate sepals
\ \
s
birdfoot violet N \\
y/ ' Viola pedata ANY |
; eastern QW |
yellow pansy Od He blue violet * \ ?
Viola pedunculata > i Viola sororia \
Violet Family— Violaceae

Violets have a distinctive, slightly irregular ower. Pansies and Johnny-jump-ups are members of the Viola
genus; if you have seen them, then you will recognize other flowers of this group. Botanically, the violets are perennial
plants with simple leaves, either basal or alternate. The nodding flowers have 5 separate sepals and 5 separate petals,
with the lower petal being larger than the side and top petal pairs. The 5 stamens alternate with the petals. The ovary
is positioned superior and consists of 3 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as an explosive 3-valved
capsule. Worldwide, there are about 22 genera and 900 species. North American genera are listed below. Note that
the African violet (Saintpaulia) is not a member of this family. It belongs to the family Gesneriaceae.
Key Words: Slightly irregular pansy-like flowers.

Hybanthus—green violet (80/4/0) Native from Arizona to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
Viola—violet, pansy (450/60/13) * Native and introduced species are found throughout North America. Violets are edible
- asa salad green or potherb. Some are better than others. Violets make an excellent tea. They are high in vitamins A
and C (Willard). As a child, I collected blue violets with my grandmother every summer. We dried them for winter
tea; it is still one of my favorites.
Violet leaves contain varying amounts of saponin. Medicinally, they are diuretic, expectorant, alterative, and
mildly laxative. Yellow violets are more laxative than others. Violets are sometimes used in cancer cases as “blood puri-
fiers” to aid the liver in eliminating waste from the blood (Willard). Violets can also be used externally as a poultice on
The
cancer (Kloss). Violets are mildly astringent, as well as mucilaginous, and thus useful for treating ulcers (Kloss).
roots of some species contain saponins and alkaloids useful for expectorant and emetic properties (Zomlefer).
75
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Malpighi > Family: Willow
Willow Family—Salicaceae
It would be hard to miss the Willow family. Willows, black cottonwood
aspens, cottonwoods, and poplars are common along nearly any Populus trichocarpa
stream, lake, or mountain meadow. Botanically, the Willow fam-
ily consists of bushes and trees with simple, alternate leaves. The
flowers are unisexual with male and female flowers appearing in
catkins on separate plants (dioecious). The sepals are greatly re-
duced or absent, and there are no petals. Male flowers have 2 or
more stamens. In the pistillate (female) flower, the ovary is posi-
tioned superior and consists of 2 to 4 united carpels, as indicated
by the number of stigmas. The carpels are united to form a single (modified leaf)
chamber which matures as a capsule, usually with silky “cotton”
pistil— P; ,
to help transport seeds by air. Worldwide, there are 2 genera and (female flower)
about 350 to 500 species in the traditional family. There are also
numerous natural hybrids between the species, which can com- 3,
Mes OVary matures Z
plicate identification down to the species level. Recent research “ asacapsule if
places Flacourtiaceae within the Willow family, adding about 52
genera, but since the newcomers are largely tropical, the traditional
family is conserved for this text.
Patterns
of
the
Willow
Family stamens
* (male flower)
Medicinally, the Willow family is analgesic, anti-inflam-
matory, astringent, and diuretic. Members of this family contain
varying amounts of the simple phenol glycosides populin, salicin,
and methyl salicylate from which the common aspirin was originally derived. These properties are strongest in the
inner bark, but are also present in the leaves. Like aspirin, the willow family is used for fevers, headaches, arthritis,
and other inflammations, particularly in the urinary tract. Unfortunately, the presence of tannic acid in the bark
makes it difficult to ingest enough salicin to relieve a common headache. A strong tea of the leaves might prove more
effective, without the bad taste. A strip of the bark can be tied over a cut to serve as an astringent-antiseptic band-aid.
Members of the Willow family may also help expel worms (Hart).
Key Words: Trees/bushes with alternate leaves in moist soil. Catkins form many small capsules.
Populus—poplar, cottonwood, aspen (40/18/7) »

Aphids sometimes produce an edible honeydew
that can be scraped or boiled off the leaves and
buds and eaten (Olsen). The inner bark and sap
of the cottonwood is reportedly sweet early in
the spring and was eaten by Native Americans.
Medicinally, the buds are diaphoretic, ex-
pectorant and diuretic (Lust). The leaves were
used as a poultice (Hart). Cottonwood and
aspen leaf buds contain a sticky, aromatic resin
that can be collected early in the spring and used
in an oil-based ointment for bruises, burns, and
skin irritations. It is popularly known as “Balm
of Gilead.” The buds are soaked in olive oil for
a week to extract constituents (Moore).
Salix—willow (350/75/28) ¢ Willow is a commonly
known wilderness medicine due to its aspirin-
like qualities. It is used for headaches, fevers,
hay fever, neuralgia, and inflammations of the
joints. Some of the salicylic acid is excreted in
balsam poplar
* white willow Populus balsamifera the urine, making it useful as an analgesic to
Salix alba the urethra and bladder (Moore).
76
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids.> Order: Malpighi > Family: Spurge
Spurge Family— Euphorbiaceae

If you have seen a poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima)
at Christmas, then you have met the Spurge family. This is
an immensely diverse family, and Euphorbia is an improbably
diverse genus, varying from succulent plants to cactus-like
specimens, as illustrated here. North American members of the
Spurge family have milky juice and simple, but varied, leaves.
Colorful petal-like bracts (modified leaves) are common.
Flowers are non-showy and mostly regular and uni- Eyphorbia esta \ ,
sexual, with staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers =
usually appearing separately on the same plant. (Male flowers
sometimes surround the female flowers.) There are 0 or 5 sepals
and petals, plus 5, 10, or numerous stamens (up to 1,000). The
ovary is positioned superior, and consists of 3 (sometimes 2, 4,
or up to 30) united carpels, as indicated by the number of styles.
Partition walls are usually present, forming an equal number of
chambers. It matures as a capsule with one seed per cell.
Worldwide, there are about 250 genera and 6,300
species, including about 25 genera in North America. The
croton (Codiaeum) and crown-of-thorns (Euphorbia milit)
are cultivated as ornamentals. The Hevea tree provides rub-
ber. Aleurites is the source for tung oil. Tapioca is made from
the starchy roots of Manihot. The Mexican jumping bean
(Sebastiana) “jumps” due to the rapid movements of a moth ; Ad 9 s
larvae inside the seed. Most members of this family contain an *> ¢ Co
acrid latex (which can be made into rubber) with poisonous = ’ ©
alkaloids. Saponins are also.common in the family.

poinsettia
milk barrel spurge
Key Words: Euphorbia pulchenima Euphorbia cereiformis
Plants with milky juice and often colored bracts.
Acalypha—copper leaf (400/19/0) Grows in southern and eastern states.
Croton—croton, turkey mullein (1,300/30/0) Turkey mullein (C. se-
tigerus) was formerly classified as Eremocarpus. The plant was used
by Native Americans to poison fish (Nyerges).
Euphorbia—spurge, poinsettia (2,400/75/8) * The spurges contain an
acrid latex sap which may cause a rash when the sap on the skin
is exposed to sunlight. The sap is considered carcinogenic if it is
handled a lot (Fern). The whole plant contains latex but it is most
concentrated in the roots. The acrid sap is useful externally on warts,
or internally to irritate and open up the body—functioning as an
emetic, anthelmintic, vasodilator, and potentially violent purgative.
A European species is considered too toxic for medicinal use (Fern).
Large doses have a depressant effect on the heart and can be fatal
to people (Lust). Leafy spurge (E. esula) is an invasive species, but
can be controlled with sheep and goats.
Ricinus—castbeanor (1/1/0) R. communis. Castor beans are cultivated
as an oil crop in warm parts of the country. The plant and seeds
are poisonous, but the toxin is water-soluble and is separated out
when the oil is pressed from the seeds. The seeds contain 35 to
55% oil. Medicinally, castor oil is well known as a potent laxative;
the oil lubricates the bowels to facilitate movement. Castor oil is
also used as an industrial lubricant, and as an ingredient in soaps,
castor bean
Ricinus communis polishes, paints, varnishes, and fly paper. The living plant is said
to repel flies and mosquitoes. The stem is a source of fiber (Fern).
Ty
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Malpighi > Family: Flax
5 or 10 stamens
Sa —5 petals~
/
Pay, J 5 sepals
[A seed capsules split
GY apart like sections of
Intrusion of the |
| midrib creates
[ false partitions common flax !
in the ovary. Linum nonox /
ee blue flax : /, Patterns of the
Yy Linum grandifiorum
Y Flax Family crimson flax
Linum grandifiorum
Flax Family—Linaceae
Flax plants wake up with a cheer every morning. In spite of their wispy little stems and small leaves that
may nearly disappear in dry weather, flax plants open up a whole bouquet of fresh flowers each day with the rising
sun. The plants often droop under the weight of their own exuberance, and all the petals fall off by noon—but just
wait until tomorrow, and a whole new batch of flowers will bloom. Flax is often planted in wildflower mixes used
along highways in the West. The flowers are bisexual and regular, with 5 separate sepals, 5 separate petals, and 5 or
10 stamens. The sepals are alternate with the petals. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 5 (rarely 3 or 4)
united carpels, with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers. It often looks like 10 carpels
due to intrusion of the midrib. The ovary matures as a capsule (rarely a drupe) with each cell containing 1 or 2 seeds.
The capsule splits apart longitudinally like the sections of an orange.
Worldwide, there are about 18 genera and 180 species. North American genera are listed below. Flax plants -
supply fibers for linen and seeds for linseed oil. Linseed oil is used as a drying agent in paints and varnishes and is
also used in the manufacture of linoleum.
Key Words: Flower parts in fives. Seed capsules like the sections of an orange.
Hesperolinon—dwarf flax (93/12/0) Hesperolinon is sometimes included within Linum. It is native to the Pacific Coast states.
Linum—flax (160/35/4) * The seeds contain cyanide, but it is easily destroyed by cooking, after which the seeds are quite
edible and nutritious. Flax seed is rich in oils, including linoleic and linolenic essential fatty acids, also known as omega
6 and omega 3. Essential means that we need the substances to function normally, but our bodies do not produce
them (Healthy Cell News). These substances help lower cholesterol and block platelets from clumping together in the
bloodstream (Willard). They also help relieve arthritis, PMS, auto-immune disorders and chronic inflammation of the
colon (Hobbs). In order for our bodies to properly utilize these essential fatty acids, they should be consumed together
with a sulfur-rich protein source; for example, flaxseed oil combined with cottage cheese. This combination reportedly
alleviates anemia, reduces cancerous tumors, and increases vitality in patients (Healthy Cell News).
Flax fibers make an excellent cordage material. Bundles of mature stalks are soaked in water for up to two
weeks to loosen the fibrous outer bark. The fibers can then be stripped and twisted into cordage while wet or dry. Learn
more about making cordage in my book Participating in Nature.
Sclerolinon—northwestern yellowflax (1/1/0) S. digynum. Native to the Pacific Coast states.
78
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Pea > Family: Pea
Patterns 6) Wy — Vy)
of the
Pea Family irregular flowers ,—
Pea Subfamily
aes
LLCF
C2,
Fi oa
Se
EC
SACS
ODP FSCCS
RAL’ 23
2:
NN
alfalfa a \ This is one pinnately divided leaf
Medicago sativa \\ = consisting of many smaller leaflets.
Pea Family—Fabaceae (Leguminosae, Papilionaceae)

Key Words: Banner, wings and keel. Pea-like pods and often pinnate leaves.
If you have seen a pea or bean blossom in the garden, then you will be able to recognize members of the Pea
family, also known as “legumes.” There are 5 united sepals. The 5 petals form a distinctive “banner, wings, and keel,”
as illustrated above. The banner is a single petal with two lobes, although it looks like two that are fused together.
Two more petals form the wings. The remaining two petals make up the keel and are usually fused together. There
-are usually 10 (sometimes 5) stamens. The ovary is positioned perigynous (partially inferior) and consists of a single
carpel. It matures as a pea-like pod with several seeds.
Identifying the banner, wings, and keel is sufficient to recognize all Peas across the northern latitudes, which
belong to the Pea subfamily. As you move south you will encounter Peas from two additional subfamilies, the Mi-
mosa subfamily and the Caesalpinia subfamily. Both of these subfamilies include mostly trees and shrubs, but also
these
a few herbs. Their flowers are significantly different from the flowers of the Pea subfamily. However, most of
trees have pinnate leave and distinctive pea-like pods that open along two seams. Once you recognize a plant as a
member of the Pea family by these characteristics, then read more about each of the subfamilies to narrow down the
identity. Remember, if the flowers have a distinctive banner, wings, and keel, then the plant is a member of the Pea
subfamily, and you can read about the different tribes of the Pea subfamily to search for the best match.
and
Worldwide, there are about 630 genera and 18,000 species in the Pea family, including peas, beans,
peanuts. This is the third largest family after the Orchid and Aster families. Most Peas form a symbiotic relationship
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. The bacteria absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and feed it to the plants.
decomposes.
Look for little bumps, often pink, on the roots. The nitrogen is “fixed” in the soil as vegetation
Plants of the Pea family range from edible to mildly poisonous. Several species contain toxic alkaloids, which
which
tend to be more ‘concentrated in the seed coats. Locoweed (Astragalus), for example, contains an alkaloid
In his
inhibits an enzyme necessary for metabolism in mammals. Excessive consumption can be fatal to livestock.
McCandles s died from similar poisoning on
book Into the Wild, author John Krakauer speculated that Christopher
of Hedysarum seeds,
a-wilderness survival outing in 1992. McCandless was harvesting and eating large quantities
seeds, disproving
_ which Krakauer proposed to be poisonous. But later research failed to turn up any toxins in the
A Guide to Identifying,
the theory, as noted in an extensive rebuttal by Samuel Thayer in his book, Natures Garden:
Harvesting, and Preparing Edible Wild Plants.
i)
» . 5 of honey mesquite
Pea Family/Mimosa Subfamily, * gyp.Prasopis lendiose
1. — (ile
SS oe spd
sensitive briar
Mimosa
microphylla ‘ #
7 (i
SSE
=e
SIE ,
ModoOHys
eras
“<a
=
43 screwbean mesquite f \
Sf Prosopis pubescens BIN Acacia filiculoides
Mimosa Subfamily—Mimosoideae
The Mimosa subfamily consists of mostly trees and shrubs, plus a few herbs. The leaves are alternate and
usually distinctively bipinnate (see the leaf terms illustrated on the opposite page). There are 5 small, united sepals,
5 separate petals, and often 10 or more stamens (sometimes only 4). These are usually small flowers in dense clusters
with long stamens radiating’out. The filaments (the stamen stems) are often brightly colored. The ovary is positioned
superior, consisting of a single carpel, which matures as a typical pea pod. Worldwide, there are about 78 genera and
3,200 species in mostly tropical regions. Some North American genera include:
Acacia—acacia (1,000/5/0) Native across the southern half of the U.S. The Acacias produce gum arabic, used in many sore
throat, cough and diarrhea formulas. The seeds of many species have been used as food (Sturtevant).
Calliandra—fairy duster (150/11/0) * Native from California to Florida.
Desmanthus—bundleflower (40/15/0) Native across the U.S., except the Pacific
northwest.
Leucaena—lead tree (24/4/0) Native and introduced species are found from Cali-
fornia to Florida.
Lysiloma—(7/3/0)Native to parts of Florida and Arizona.
Mimosa (including Schrankia)—sensitive plant (500/20/0) Native from Arizona to
North Dakota, east to the Atlantic.
Prosopis—mesquite, screw bean (45/7/0) * Native from California to Missouri and
south. The pods and seeds were pounded, cooked and eaten. The flowers are
also edible (Harrington).
sensitive plant
Mimosa pudica
The sensitive plant folds

its leaves when touched.
80
Pea Family / Caesalpinia Subfamily

simple leaf
MA, a.
a Y r= KiDs SM
BN
Zs Mie Seca
aaa
lx) \\ epee
ims
So [(a
op)
SSikae
WawS
CLDLOSS,
SS
BSSXS es
YW
PS
bipinnate leaf Je S yi
eastern redbud " java bean honey locust

Cercis canadensis Senna obtusifolia Gleditsia triacanthos ie
(]
Caesalpinia Subfamily— Caesalpinioideae

The Caesalpinia subfamily (also known as the Senna subfamily or Bird-of-Paradise Tree subfamily), includes
mostly trees and shrubs (rarely herbs) with showy, slightly irregular flowers. The leaves may be simple, pinnate, or
bipinnate (see illustration above). There are 5 separate sepals and 5 petals, with one petal enclosed inside the others.
There are usually 10 (sometimes fewer) stamens. The ovary is positioned superior, consisting of a single carpel, which
matures as a typical pea pod. Worldwide, there are about 170 genera and 2,200 species, mostly in the Old World
tropics. North American genera include:
Caesalpinia—bird-of-paradise tree (125/10/0) Introduced from India as an ornamental, it now grows from Arizona to
Florida. This genus includes species formally classified as Guilandina. These plants are not related to the Bird-of-Paradise
Flower (Strelitzia reginae) of the Banana family (Musaceae), which is not covered in this text.
Cassia—senna (500/4/0) Many species formerly classified as Cassia are now Senna.
Cercis—tedbud, Judas tree (7/2/0) The flowers and pods have been used in salads (Sturtevant).
Chamaecrista—sensitive pea (330/12/0) Native from Arizona to Minnesota, east to the Atlantic.
Gleditsia—honey locust (12/3/0) * The immature, raw seeds taste like green peas. The mature seeds can be boiled and eaten,
or roasted and ground for use as a coffee substitute. The pulp inside the seedpods is sweet. It can be eaten raw or pro-
cessed into sugar (Fern). See Robinia for the locust or honey locust tree.
Gymnocladus—Kentucky coffee bean tree (3/1/0) G. dioicus. The pods are
edible. Seeds are used as a coffee substitute (Sturtevant). Kentucky ~
Parkinsonia (including Cercidium)—palo verde (12/3/0) * The common coffee bean
Gymnocladus
name is Spanish for “bark green,” which is a distinctive identifying dioica *
characteristic for palo verde trees. I have harvested Palo verde beans
both green and dried. The beans should be shelled to separate them
from the pods, then boiled until tender. They are often abundant and
quite delicious. This is a prime wild food resource.
Senna—senna (300/28/0) Includes many species formerly classified as Cassia.
Tamarindus—tamarind (1/1/0) T: indica. Originally native to eastern Africa,
the tamarind tree is widely cultivated in the tropics worldwide, including
Mexico and as far north as Florida. The fruit, known as tamarindo or
Indian date, is a thick, dark brown or reddish-brown pulp surrounding
small seeds inside a hard, brittle bean-shaped pod. Tamarindos contains
20% fruit acids and up to 35% sugar, plus pectin. We bought a bottle
of tamarindo concentrate on a trip to Mexico. The flavor is both sweet
"and sour, not quite like any other fruit I know. The taste is sometimes
described as a combination of apricots, dates, and lemons. Tamarindos
are widely used in cooking in India and Asia.
81
‘Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Pea > Family: Pea
Pea Subfamily—Faboideae
The Pea subfamily includes all members of the Pea family with
a distinctive “banner, wings, and keel.” These are mostly of herbs, but
some are shrubs and trees. When you've identified a plant as a member
of this subfamily, then read about each of the tribes that follow to see
which one best fits your sample.
Golden Pea Tribe—Thermopsideae golden pea

Plants of the Golden Pea tribe could easily be mistaken for lupine Thermopsis
. thombifolia
of the Broom tribe, but lupine has a palmately divided leaf while members
of the Golden Pea tribe have trifoliate (three-parted) leaves, often with
stipules.
Baptisia—wild indigo (35/25/0) Native to eastern and southern states.
Thermopsis—golden pea (23/9/2) * My grandmother always called these
beautiful yellow flowers “cowslips.” They grew in large patches in the
fields near her home, and we often picked bouquets of the flowers to Subfamily
Pea
Tribe
bring home. Golden pea may be poisonous to some livestock.
Hedysarum Tribe—Hedysareae
Members of the Hedysarum tribe have either trifoliate (three-
parted) or pinnate leaves, but no tendrils. The distinctive feature of these
plants is that the pods on most species are deeply constricted between the
seeds (see illustration). A few are not constricted, but the pods still tend
to break apart transversely (cross-wise instead of lengthwise).
Coronilla—crown vetch (25/1/1) C. varia. Introduced from Eurasia. The

plant may contain cardiac glycosides. A British species is considered highly
toxic, so all species should be suspect (Fern).
Desmodium—tick trefoil (400/45/0) Now segregated into its own tribe, Des-
modieae.
Hedysarum—sweetvetch (300/8/4)
The roots of some species are
known to be edible (Willard).
Onobrychis—sainfoin (180/1/1)
O. victifolia, also known as O.
alpine sweetvetch sativa. Cultivated as forage for
Hedysarum alpinum livestock.
Subfamily
Pea
/Hedysarum
Tribe
Broom Tribe—Genisteae
The Broom tribe includes mostly shrubs, some with spines. The
leaves can be simple, trifoliate, or palmately divided (Lupinus), but not pin-
nately divided. (See the Guide to Leaf Terms inside the back cover.)
Crotalaria—trattle box (600/13/0) Grows from Arizona to Minnesota and east. Subfamily
Pea
Tribe
/Broom
Cytisus—scotch broom (60/6/0) * Scotch broom was introduced from Europe.
It is now found along the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts. C. scoparius con-
tains the alkaloid sparteine, which slows the heart and stimulates uterine
contractions (Tyler).
Genista—broom (90/7/0) Introduced.
Lupinus—lupine (200/150/10) * The root and seeds of some species may be
edible after cooking, but some are known to contain poisonous alkaloids
(Harrington). More research needs to be done in this area.
Spartium—Spanish broom (1/1/0) S. junceum. Introduced. sundial lupine
Ulex—gorse (15/1/0) U. europaeus. Introduced. Lupinus perennis
82
Sy
SA)
two-grooved milkvetch Spang wild licorice
Astragalus bisulcatus Sew) Biyeyiriee
SE lepidota
breadroot
Psoralea esculenta
Siberian | Vary :
peashrub | ~ Pea Subfamily §
3 apart ¥’ Licorice Tribe
Licorice Tribe (including the False Indigo, Breadroot, and Locust tribes)—Galegeae
Aside from Psoralea, most plants of the Licorice tribe have pinnately divided leaves. None of the plants have
tendrils like the Pea tribe, or deeply constricted pods like the Hedysarum tribe. Taxonomists have recently segregated
several genera from the Licorice tribe into new tribes of their own, as noted in the text below.
Amorpha—false indigo, lead plant (20/20/1) False Indigo tribe. Amorpha has a banner petal, but no wing or keel petals.
The true indigo plant (Indigofera), a source of dye, is in its own tribe.
Astragalus—locoweed, milk vetch, ground plum (2000/375/43) * Ground plum (A. succulentus) has swollen, plum-like
pods, easy to distinguish from other members of this genus. The whole pods are edible when young, and the “peas”
are still good, even when the pods become tough. Members of this genus are known accumulators of selenium from
the soil, and some contain poisonous alkaloids. Medicinally, A. americanus may be similar to a popular Chinese herb
of this genus (Willard). Several species produce a gum called tragacanth, used to stabilize medicinal preparations by
keeping them from separating into solids and liquids (Klein).
Caragana—caragana (80/3/1) * Introduced and often cultivated as a hedge or windbreak. The drying pods audibly snap
and twist to eject the seeds. The flowers, seeds, and young pods are edible, but should probably be cooked.
Dalea (including Petalostemon)—prairie clover, indigo bush (165/30/4) * False Indigo tribe. The root is sweet and edible
raw. The fresh plant is emetic, but a beverage tea can be made from the dried leaves (Fern).
Glycyrrhiza—wild licorice (15/1/1) * G. lepidota. Native west of the Mississippi. A European species, G. glabra, was the
" original source of licorice flavor. Chop and boil the root in hot water to extract the flavor. Our native species can be
used similarly but doesn’t taste like licorice. It usually has small, woody roots, but I have seen a few large ones sticking
out of the soil along river banks. Most licorice candies are artificially flavored.
Medicinally, licorice root contains chemicals similar to the human adrenal hormone; it is used to regulate |
steroids
women’s hormones for PMS and menstrual cramps (Willard). It can stimulate higher levels of adrenocortico
Licorice root has an anti-inflamm atory effect that mimics cortisone in the body, but without
and estrogen (Moore).
codeine, a
the side effects of steroid drugs. In studies of cough suppression medicines, licorice root was as effective as
licorice can
narcotic drug often added to commercial cough remedies (Tilford). When taken over an extended period,
blood
cause the body to excrete more potassium and retain sodium (Hobbs), leading to water retention and elevated
pressure. People have been hospitalized after consuming too much licorice (Tyler).
Oxytropis—pointloco, vetch (350/36/11) Several species contain toxic alkaloids.
Psoralea across the U.S., and all
Psoralea—breadroot, scurf pea (150/40/5) * Breadroot tribe. There.are many species of
root is dug in the
apparently have edible roots (Sturtevant). /? esculenta is abundant in eastern Montana. The starchy
food plant
spring when the ground is moist. The bark is peeled off and the root is eaten raw or cooked. It is a first-class
however, as it is somewhat similar in appearance to Lupinus of the Broom
where it is available. Caution is advised,
Tribe. The seed-coat contains the lactone glycoside coumarin.
are poisonous. Locust seeds are acidic and
Robinia—locust tree, black locust (20/5/1) Locust tribe. The leaves and bark
the seeds are poisonous.
high in oil, but may be edible after thorough boiling (Sturtevant). Some sources suggest that
Note that honey locust (Gleditsia) belongs to the Caesalpini a subfamily.
83
Alfalfa has
curly pods. . \y
Ne yi
Vf
hy
ft ISla
\)
trifoliate leaves
(3-parted)
Pea Subfamily
Clover Tribe A
sweet clover
2
of ~/ aalta
Medicago sativa
red clover sd Melilotus officinalis
Trifolium pratense i
Clover Tribe— Trifolieae

A distinctive trait of the Clover tribe is its trifoliate (3-parted), clover-like leaves. These species also tend
to have smaller flowers than most other peas, and they are often tightly clustered together. Fenugreek (Trigonella), a
native of India, is a member of this tribe.
Medicago—alfalfa, black medic (110/12/4) ¢ Alfalfa is an introduced crop plant from the Middle East. The mature plant has
deep roots (up to sixty feet) and accumulates many mineral nutrients. It contains calcium, chlorine, iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, potassium, silica, sodium and trace minerals, plus significant quantities of the vitamins A, B1, B6, B12,
C, E, K1, and P. Alfalfa also contains dozens of amino acids, making the plant high in protein. A tea of the plant or a
few leaves in a salad makes a highly nutritional health tonic. Tonics like this are useful for helping the body deal with
chronic ailments such as arthritis, rheumatism and ulcers. Alfalfa also contains coumarins, mildly useful for lowering
cholesterol, except that coumarins are destructive to red blood cells and interfere with the utilization of vitamin E. This
is believed to be one of the causes of bloating in farm animals. Please note that alfalfa sprouts contain a toxic substance
called canavanine, which can lead to scarred lesions on the face and scalp with excessive use.
Melilotus—sweet clover (25/6/3) * The sweet odor of these plants is due to the
presence of coumarin. A concentrated dose is sometimes administered in-
ternally as an anticoagulant to break up blood clots. Excessive use may lead
to poisoning (Lust). Coumarin can break down into toxins if it is allowed
to spoil (as in moldy hay); these toxins reduce prothrombin content of the
blood and prevent the blood from clotting in a wound (Craighead).
Trifolium—clover (300/95/20) * The leaves, stems, and flowers are edible as salad
greens or potherbs, but are minimally digestible and may cause bloating. Soak-
ing them in salt water apparently counteracts this effect (Kirk). Red clover
seems more edible than other species. Clover seeds are also edible (Olsen).
Medicinally, red clover is a diuretic and expectorant (Willard). A tea of the
flowers is used to stimulate liver and gall bladder activity (Lust). Red clover
contains some coumarins, saponins, and flavonoids (Hobbs).
Trefoil Tribe—Loteae
Members of the Trefoil tribe have trifoliate (three-parted) or pin-
nately divided leaves, sometimes with stipules at the base of the leaves.
stipules. Lotus—bird’s foot trefoil (125/60/3) * The fresh plant can produce cyanide and
, may be toxic raw. The young seed pods may be cooked and eaten. The plant
bird's foot trefoil has carminative, antispasmodic and hypoglycemic properties. It is also used
Subfamily
Pea
/Trefoil
Tribe Lotus comiculatus “ trifoliate leaf as a poultice for skin inflammations (Fern).
84
Pea Tribe—Fabeae Pea Subfamily / Pea Tribe

Plants of the Pea tribe can be distin- Qh,
guished by their pinnate leaves and tendrils. :
This tribe includes sweet peas (Lathyrus),
lentils (Lens) and the garden pea (Pisum). Note
that the chick pea or garbanzo bean (Cicer) has
been segregated into its own tribe, Cicereae.
The seeds of some species of the Pea tribe can
cause nervous disorders if consumed in excess.
Most poisonings occur in hot climates.
Lathyrus—sweet pea (150/45/6) ¢ A few spe-
cies are edible in moderation, but may
cause nervous disorders if eaten exces-
sively over an extended period of time. N
Other species are toxic (Kirk). American stipules
Vicia—vetch (140/30/5) * The seeds and vetch perennial pea
Lathyrus latifolius
young stems are edible (Craighead). The W/2 2m it)
plants may contain cyanide (Phillips).
Bean Tribe—Phaseoleae
Most species of the Bean tribe are twining plants that climb by growing their vine-like stems around poles or
other objects. The leaves are usually three-parted. This tribe includes many common beans (Phaseolus), the soybean
(Glycine), as well as cow peas and black-eyed peas (Vigna). :
Amphicarpaea—hog peanut (2/1/0) A. bracteata. Native east of the Rocky Mountains. Hog Peanut is native to the south-
eastern U.S. The pods are edible (Sturtevant, Hall).
Apios—ground nut, hopniss (8/2/0) Pinnate leaves. Native to the eastern half of North America. Starchy tubers form on its
roots much like beads on a string. They are edible raw and reportedly taste “like Idaho potatoes” when cooked (Kallas).
Erythrina—coralbean (104/3/0) Grows from Arizona to Virginia.
Galactia—milkpea (112/17/0) Native from Arizona to New York, south to Florida.
Pueraria—kudzu vine (15/1/0) P montana. Introduced from Asia. It is common across the southeastern states, where it can
engulf trees and sometimes kill them by taking all the light. The tubers can be added to stews, or pounded into flour.
The young leaves, shoots, and blossoms are all edible as potherbs. The roots are high in flavonoids (Duke)
Rhynchosia—snoutbean (200/15/0) Native from Arizona to Maryland, south to Florida.
Strophostyles—fuzzybean (4/3/0) Native from Arizona to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
least snoutbean
Rhynchosia minima
i redcardinal
Pe toining snoutbean
coralbean
Rhynchosia tomentosa
kudzu vine Erythrina
bfamily / Bean Tribe Pueraria montana herbacea
85
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Pea > Family: Milkwort
Seneca snakeroot Patterns of the Milkwort Family

Look for irregular flowers with milky stems.
"~~ petal fringe
stigma with ay
8 stamens tuft of hairs-S599
my
fused to petals
: \3 united petals.
3 green sepals
b petal-like sepals
if
; }flower splayed open
Lie %
a N
gaywings milkwort
.Polygala paucifolia \
a) “ of <
yes aa, f,
SS Ny lV OAs z . Bees a, .
a ae qi eee: © b ey 7, | eA SE.
~ af (bedi seree SN i eee RR ae ee 1 Ne bhMeixet YH v4
q nies me)F \b¢.
Gor. at a aghts9 “er oSvi oo F i e od
ab oe cs Mel y'i/
Milkwort Family—Polygalaceae
Flowers of the Milkwort family look superficially like those of the Pea family, but there are some significant
differences. Milkwort flowers are irregular and bisexual. There are 5 sepals—but usually 3 green outer sepals and 2
petal-like inner sepals. There are 3 (sometimes 5) united petals, usually fused with the stamens, and the lower petal is
often fringed. There are 8 (sometimes fewer) stamens, fused to the petals. The ovary is positioned superior. It consists
of 2 (rarely 5) united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as
a capsule, nut, or drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed.)
Worldwide, there are about 17 genera and 850 species in the Milkwort family. The genera below are found
in North America. Milkworts are found in patchy distribution mostly across the southern states.
Key Words: Irregular flowers with milky stems.

Monnina—pygmyflower (125/1/0) M. wrightii. Native to Arizona and New Mexico. ;
Polygala—milkwort, snakeroot (550/60/2) Seneca snakeroot (2 senega) is native to eastern North America. The roots contain
8 to 16% triterpenoid saponins. The saponins irritate the stomach lining, causing nausea, which subsequently stimu-
lates bronchial secretions and the sweat glands (Tyler). A tea of the dried root stimulates salivation and circulation; it is
considered beneficial for lung disorders, but it is irritating to inflamed tissues. (Hutchins). A tea of the leaves is taken for
coughs, bronchitis, and other chronic lung ailments. The plants are useful as digestive stimulants (Lust). Some species
of milkwort were once believed to increase milk production in cows (Schauenberg). Herbal books still list milkwort
as an herb for stimulating milk flow from nursing mothers (Lust). Milkwort is also used as an expectorant (Weiner).
86
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Elm
Patterns of the Elm Family Look for trees or shrubs with simple leaves
that are asymmetrical at the base.
Ly y Wa
y)
react 4)
K Ske LAS water elm
in se Planera
American elm common:hackberry
Ufmus americana Celtis occidentalis
Elm Family—Ulmaceae
The Elm family consists of a handful of trees and shrubs in the eastern and southern parts of the country,
e some of which are planted elsewhere as ornamentals. The leaves are simple and alternate, but often a little bit asym-
metrical at the base. The flowers are bisexual in the elms and unisexual in the other genera. There are 4 or 8 separate
sepals and 0 petals, plus 4 to 8 stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 (rarely 3) united carpels
forming a single chamber. It matures as a samara (a winged seed) or a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed).
Worldwide, there are about 15 genera and 130 species in the Elm family. Our native genera are listed below.
Only the hackberry is found naturally in the West. Other cultivated genera from the family include Aphananthe,
Hemiptelea, Pteroceltis, and Zelkova. The native elm population has suffered greatly from Dutch elm disease.
Key Words: Trees and shrubs with simple leaves asymmetrical at the base.
Celtis—hackberry (70/5/1) * Genetic evidence suggests that Ce/tis belongs to the closely related Hemp family, Cannabaceae,
but the traditional grouping is retained here for ease of identifica-
tion. The fruits are edible (Sturtevant, Moerman).
Planera—water elm (1/1/0) P aquatica. Native to the southeastern
states. The fruit is a prickly nut.
Ulmus—elm, slippery elm (25/7/2) * The young leaves are edible raw
or cooked (Fern). The bark may be dried and ground into flour; slippery elm
it is used in times of scarcity. The green fruits are also edible Ulmus rubra
(Sturtevant). (a.k.a. U. fulva)
The immature winged seeds of Siberian elm (U. pumila)
are a sweet treat to nibble on and an excellent addition to a salad.
The introduced trees are incredibly hardy and drought tolerant,
but invasive in many woodlands. However, they seem to fill an
open niche here in arid Montana, often surviving where little else
can grow. Read more about Siberian elms in Foraging the Mountain
West and Samuel Thayer's The Forager’s Harvest.
The inner bark of slippery elm (U. rubra, a.k.a. U. fulva)
is highly mucilaginous and somewhat astringent. It is used as a
soothing remedy, applied externally as an emollient for burns, or
taken internally as a demulcent for sore throats and other internal
inflammations, including diarrhea (Lust). It is the kind of remedy
that can be used for just about anything. A friend once gave me
some in tea to reduce a fever on an expedition. I recall that it was
very effective. The inner bark can also be used as cordage material. Sofa od
(winged seeds)
87
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Mulberry
Look for trees and shrubs with alternate leaves and

Patterns of the Mulberry Family milky sap. Male and female flowers form separately
unisexual on the same or different trees.
AN flowers
\ osage orange
Maclura pomifera
\ ef; leaves
@a *
7 bac
ay? red mulberry *

oy se paper mulberry
Broussonetia papyrifera
Mulberry Family—Moraceae
Have you ever seen a tree with milky sap? If so, you have likely met a member of the Mulberry family. These
trees and shrubs have alternate leaves and milky latex sap. The unisexual flowers are small and usually tightly clustered,
with male and female flowers appearing-on the same or different trees. Male flowers have 4 (sometimes 0) sepals, 0
petals and 4 stamens. Female flowers have 4 (sometimes 0) sepals and 0 petals. The ovary is positioned superior or
inferior and consists of usually 2 (rarely 3) united carpels, as indicated by the same number of styles. One carpel is
usually aborted, forming a single chamber. In species with tightly clustered flowers, the fruits merge together as a
single mass, creating a false fruit known as an “aggregate” or “multiple.”
Figs are highly unusual in that the flowers are borne in the hollow end of a branch, which later swells around
the developing seeds to become the fruit, called a “syconium.” Other members of the family produce a nut or a drupe
(a fleshy fruit with a stony seed).
Worldwide, there are about 53 genera and 1,500 species in the family. About 800 species are Ficus, including
figs, the banyan tree, the Indian rubber tree, and the bodhi tree, where the Buddha became enlightened. Breadfruit
and jackfruit belong to Artocarpus. Other cultivated genera (mostly tropical) include Antiaris, Brosimum, Cecropia,
Chlorophora, Cudrania, Coussapoa, Dorstenia, Musanga, and Treculia.
North American genera, native and introduced, are listed below.
Key Words: Trees and shrubs w/ alternate leaves and milky sap.
Broussonetia—paper mulberry (7/1/0) B. papyrifera. Introduced from Asia.
Fatoua—crabweed (3/1/0) F villosa. Introduced to the southeastern and
Pacific states.
Maclura—osage orange (12/1/0) Osage orange is valued as one of the pre-
mier woods for bow-making in this country, even though the wood is
almost all knots.
Morus—mulberry (12/3/0) * The aggregate fruits are edible, varying from
sweet to acidic. Eat them raw or cooked into jelly, pies, or added to osage orange
ice cream (Lincoff). Maclura pomifera
When I was a kid, we lived in Los Altos, California. I don’t

recall that we ever ate the fruits from the mulberry trees in our yard,
but we fed the leaves to our pet silkworms.
Medicinally, a tea of the bark is used as a laxative and to expel
tapeworms. The milky juice and the unripe fruit may cause hallucina-
tions, nervousness and an upset stomach (Lust).
4
Fruit is a “multiple.”
88
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Hemp
Hemp Family—Cannabaceae Patterns of the Hemp Fami ly

The plants of the Hemp family may not have much in hops vine
re,7]ee
Humulus
the way of showy flowers, but the family does claim one of the
most recognized plants on earth: marijuana (Cannabis sativa).
Members of the Hemp family are dioecious, meaning that
male and female flowers form on separate plants. Male flowers grow
in loose racemes or panicles, each flower with 5 sepals, 0 petals and
5 stamens. Female flowers form in dense clusters, sometimes hidden
by leafy bracts, with 5 sepals and 0 petals. The ovary is positioned
superior and consists of 2 united carpels, as indicated by the same
number of styles. One carpel is usually aborted, forming a single
chamber. It matures as an achene (a dry seed).
Worldwide, the traditional family includes only 2 genera
and 3 to 5 different species. However, genetic evidence suggests
that hackberries (Ce/tis) should be transferred here from the closely
related Elm family.
Key Words: Coarse, aromatic plants with palmate or

pinnate leaves and no petals. Coarse, mildly
aromatic plants
with palmate
Cannabis—marijuana,
; :
hemp (1/1/1)
ead
C. sativa. Some botanists
te leaves. Male
recognize three different species instead of one. Medicinally, and female flowers
marijuana is often used to stimulate appetite, control nausea, _without petals form
and manage chronic pain. The drug can help patients sufter- in clusters on separate
ing from neuropathic pain, commonly caused by degenerative Rents, female flowers
diseases like multiple sclerosis or fibromyalgia, and as a side Nes
effect of chemotherapy and radiation (Wilson).
Marijuana is also a popular recreational drug with euphoric properties. It is theoretically impossible to get a
fatal overdose of unadulterated marijuana, regardless of potency or quantity, but the substance is considered addictive
for about 9 percent of users. The main psychoactive ingredient in Cannabis is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, also known
as THC. The human body prodtices natural cannabinoids, active chemicals that make us feel good, and THC has a
similar effect on the body. The safety or risk of the drug has been a topic of intense debate. A 2011 study found that
marijuana has little long-term effect on learning and memory in adults. But another study showed long-term harm to
adolescent marijuana users. Teens who smoked pot at least four days a week lost an average of eight IQ points between
the ages of 13 and 38. Adults who smoked pot as teenagers had pronounced deficits in memory, concentration, and
overall brainpower compared to their peers (Wilson).
Pot is ubiquitous in our culture. It seems like just about every teenager and adult in the country, includ-
ing our recent Presidents, have all tried it. My singular experience with marijuana went badly. After the emotionally
devastating loss of my marriage, I felt curious to try new experiments in life, so I tried half a pot brownie. Nothing
happened at first, but then I blacked out. The following day was miserable, with brief moments of coherence and long
gaps in consciousness. I was told I had a very low tolerance for marijuana. I succeeded in driving home a day later, but
experienced gaps in consciousness for months afterwards. People could walk across a room in front of me without me
noticing it. They just appeared on the opposite side of the room. I also suffered intermittent, sudden drowsiness that
made ten miles of driving seem like a thousand. It took my body about six months to cleanse itself from the experience.
Other people obviously don’t react as badly as I do, but it is hard to imagine that it is doing them any good!
Cannabis is also famous for its fiber. Most of our ropes and paper and much of our fabric was once made
from hemp fibers. Outlawing this plant eliminated an extremely valuable resource. There are some varieties of hemp
with virtually no psychoactive properties that should be legalized and utilized.
Humulus—hops vine (2/2/1) ¢ The young leaves, shoots, and roots may be cooked and eaten, and the seeds contain gamma-
linolenic acid. The female flowers have a powdery appearance due to many small, translucent-yellow glands; this appears
to be the source of the bitter and antibacterial properties that are valued in beer making (Fern). Hops is also rich in
pectin (Duke). Stuffing a pillow with dried hops, or brewing a tea of the plant or flowers, produces a sedative effect.
The tea is a bitter tonic that stimulates digestive functions while acting as a general antispasmodic. Hops can be used for
cordage if the vines are soaked over winter before separating the fibers. The fibers are also used in making paper (Fern).
89
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Stinging Nettle
Stinging Nettle Family— Urticaceae

Many plants in the Stinging Nettle family have a memorable way of identifying themselves to you. Hairs
underneath the leaves function as hypodermic needles, injecting formic acid into the skin when you come in contact
with them. Several genera have stinging hairs, including Urtica, Laportea, Hesperocnide, Urera, and Dendrocnide.
Members of the Stinging Nettle »
stinging nettle
\Y
Urtica dioica pellitory
family are mostly herbs with simple,
Panetaria usually opposite leaves and occasionally
pensylvanica squarish, usually hairy stems. The green
\
Nahe?
or brownish flowers are mostly unisexual
with male and female flowers on the same
or different plants. There are 4 or 5 sepals,
0 petals, and 4 to 5 stamens. The ovary
is positioned superior and has only one
carpel. It matures as a dry seed, called an
achene.
Worldwide, there are about 54
genera and 2600 species. Six genera are
found in North America, as listed below.
Most plants in the family are edible as
potherbs. The stalks have strong fibers for
usually opposite
making cordage.
sometimes alternate
These are herbs with mostly opposite leaves and sometimes

~ squarish, usually hairy stems. Male and female flowers form
Key Words:
separately on the same or different plants, in tight or string- Usually hairy plants with
like clusters from the leaf axils. petalless flowers in string-like
Patterns of the Stinging Nettle Family clusters at the leaf axils.
Boehmeria—silkplant, false nettle (80/16/0) Silkplant is said to have the longest fibers known in the plant kingdom, with
a tensile strength eight times greater than cotton (Fern).
Hesperocnide—western nettle (2/1/0) H. tenella. Native to California and Baja California.
Laportea—wood nettle (45/5/0) The young leaves are edible after cooking to destroy the stinging hairs. They are said to
taste better than stinging nettles (Thayer). Fiber from the stems is up to 50 times stronger than cotton (Fern).
Parietaria—pellitory (20/6/1) The young plant is edible raw or cooked (Sturtevant). The plant has both astringent and
demulcent properties; it is used externally as a poultice for burns and wounds. A tea of the plant is taken internally for
bladder stones and as a laxative. The whole plant may be crushed and used to clean windows or copperware (Fern).
Pilea—clearweed (600/7/0) Clearweed is reportedly a delicious potherb and tasty raw when young (Cook).
Urtica—stinging nettle (35/4/2) * Stinging nettles are edible as a potherb, or added to soups, pesto, sauces, and custard.
In Turkey, the leaves are layered onto a circular flat of dough, then rolled, baked, and sliced (Lincoff). I like chopped
nettles blended into scrambled eggs. Nettles should be harvested young, before blooming. The plants may accumulate
nitrates (see also the Amaranth family) or form calcium carbonate cystoliths as they age (Kallas). It is best to pick them
with gloves and a knife. Lacking gloves or a reasonable substitute, carefully grab the plants by the stems and avoid the
stinging hairs beneath the leaves. Dried, powdered nettles can be used as a flour additive and stew thickener. Nettles are
high in nutrients, including vitamins A, C, and D, the minerals calcium, iron, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, silica,
and albuminoids (Willard), and relatively high in protein. The plants are reportedly edible raw if properly crushed first
(Kramer). Nettle tea can be used to curdle milk for making cheese (Moore).
Nettles have been used medicinally as a rubefacient to irritate rheumatic joints by whipping them with the
plant (Coon), or by applying crushed leaves as a poultice (Lust) to stimulate healing activity in the area. Remembering
this advice, a friend with an ill-fitting boot on a walkabout whipped his swollen ankle with nettles until it went numb.
But by morning the pain was worse than ever. The tendonitis was obvious when he finally hobbled into a clinic, but
the nettle rash was awkward to explain! Nettle tea is a good astringent, useful externally as a wash and hair cleanser or
internally for bleeding (Kloss). Nettles are diuretic, but may irritate the kidneys with prolonged use. The plant is also
known to bind up immunoglobulin G, reducing sensitivity to food allergies (Willard).
The dead stalks make excellent cordage material (see Participating in Nature) and were used in Germany in
World War I for weaving when cotton was unavailable. (Coon).
90
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Rose
palmate leaf
Virginia wild rose,
Rosa virginiana }
/¥
,
Wy
\_ Ahi
5 separate sepals es
Ppa
consisting 5 separate petals
of several
leaflets
with stipules
are common }
purple-flowering
~~ Spiny rose galls are casued by
raspberry
Rub dorat
ubus odoratus |; aj
gall wasps (Diplolepis).
Rose Family—Rosaceae
Key Words: 5 sepals and 5 petals with usually numerous stamens. Oval, serrated leaves.
If you have ever buried your nose into an apple, rose, strawberry, or cherry blossom, then you know the
Rose family. Roses have alternate leaves, which vary from simple to trifoliate, palmate, or pinnate. The whole leaves
or smaller leaflets are frequently more or less oval-shaped with serrated edges, which is a good secondary pattern
for recognizing the Rose family. As for the flowers, there are typically 5 (rarely 3 to 10) separate sepals and a similar
number of petals. There are a minimum of 5 stamens, but often many more,
usually in multiples of five. Many flowers of the Rose family, especially those of
the Rose subfamily, have several’ to numerous simple pistils, or the pistils may
be united at the:base, with the styles separate, making a single compound pistil
with numerous styles. Either way, the result is a distinctive, fuzzy-looking center
surrounded by lots of stamens. Plants of the Rose family form many different
fruits, varying from fleshy fruits to various false fruits, dry seeds, capsules, or
follicles, as described on the following pages. 4~
Worldwide, there are about 100 genera and 3,000 species. About 50 ad
genera are found in North America. The Rose family produces many edible fruits. jr ¥
Tannins are common in the vegetation, giving astringent properties. Cyanide
compounds are found in the leaves and fruits of some species.
In the early 1900s, botanists reclassified the Spirea, Plum, and Apple
families as subfamilies within the Rose family. In response, Robert Frost poemed,
/
“The rose is a rose and was always a rose. But the theory now goes that the apples a
rose, and the pear is, and so’s the plum, I suppose. The dear [Lord] only knows what
will next prove a rose. You, ofcourse, are a rose - but were always a rose. 4
urtlietvatne
Taxonomists have since determined that the Spiraea, Plum, and Apple
Geum rivale
subfamilies did not represent genetically distinct lines, but should more properly
wr
combined as a single subfamily, now known as the Almond subfamily, Amyg-
XS s
daloideae. When you have a specimen in hand, then read through each of the
subfamilies to narrow down the choices for identification.
91
Rose Family / Rose Subfamily
pa
g
red raspberry <# x

Rubus idaeus x
S
stipules
prickly rose
Rosa acicularis
j j silverwe
i ed
' wild strawberry Wii ae Argentina anserina
y Fragaria virginiana (Potentilla anserina)
Rose Subfamily—Rosoideae
Most flowers of the Rose subfamily have a slightly domed receptacle beneath the pistils. Some species re-
semble Buttercups with their numerous stamens and numerous simple pistils attached to a cone-like receptacle. But
it is easy to determine the difference. There are often stipules at the base of leaves in the Rose subfamily, but never
in the Buttercups. Stipules are small, leaf-like growths at the base of the leaf stems (see Rosa acicularis above).
Plants of the Rose subfamily have multiple separate pistils (sometimes basally united). Botanically speaking,
the ovary from each pistil matures into its own fruit, which is a dry seed (achene) in most Roses. However, there
are some interesting false fruits. In the rose, for example, each ovary produces a dry seed, all of which are enclosed
within a fleshy receptical that greatly resembles a fleshy ovary. The strawberry is similar, but inverted, with the dry
seeds embedded on the surface of a fleshy receptical. The raspberry, however, does have fleshy fruits; the ovary-of
each simple pistil swells to create an aggregate fruit covering a domed receptacle.
Agrimonia—agrimony (12/8/1) Agrimony is astringent and diuretic, containing malic and tannic acid (Moore, Lust).
Alchemilla—lady’s mantle (300/7/1) Various species may have 4, 5, or 10 petals. The plant is astringent (Lust).
Argentina—silverweed (3/2/1) * Includes species formerly included in Potentilla.
Chamaerhodes—iittle rose (8/1/1) C. erecta. Native to the Rockies, Canada, and Alaska.
Fragaria—strawberry (20/8/2) * The domestic strawberry is a hybrid of F virginiana and E chiloensis. Wild strawberries
are small, but usually flavorful. On camping trips I like to use the fruits in wild strawberry ashcake pies, as described
in Participating in Nature. Strawberry leaves are mildly astringent and mucilaginous.
Fallugia—Apache plume (1/1/0) * F paradoxa. Native to arid habitats from California to Texas.
Geum—avens (56/18/6) * The root of G. rivale can reportedly te boiled and sugar added for a “chocolate substitute” (Hall).
Geum contains tannic acid and bitters, and releases volatile oils with hydrolysis (Schauenberg).
Horkelia—pink root (19/19/1) The root of at least one species has a pink sap. A tea of the root is taken as a “tonic” (Murphey).
Kelseya—kelseya (1/1/1) K. uniflora. Found on rocky outcroppings in Montana, Idaho, and Colorado.
Luetkea—partridge foot (1/1/1) L. pectinata. Native from Alaska to California, east to the Rockies.
Potentilla—cinquefoil, silverweed (300/120/26) * All potentillas are astringent; the roots of some contain up to 20% tan-
nin. Some bitter principles are also present (Densmore, Schauenberg).
Rosa—tose (100/54/6) * Rose hip tea is one of my all-time favorites, even better left in the kettle overnight. Rose hips cling
to the bushes through most of the winter. Depending on the species, rose hips vary from dry to fleshy and pleasant as a
trail nibble. I eat most fleshy rose hips whole, but other people caution that the hairy seeds could be a choking hazard.
If in doubt, clean it out. Rose hips are extremely rich in vitamin C and often included as an ingredient in vitamin tablets.
Rubus—taspberry, blackberry, salmonberry, thimbleberry (700/240/6) * Wild raspberries contain citric and malic acids
(Densmore). The vegetation is mildly astringent and diuretic, generally recommended during pregnancies (Willard). It
is also mildly mucilaginous (Geller). It is used for diarrhea (Lust). The wilted vegetation may produce cyanide (Tilford).
Read more about raspberries, blackberries, and their kin in Foraging the Mountain West.
Sanguisorba—burnet (30/8/1) * 4 petal-like sepals. 0 petals. 2 to 12 stamens. 1 to 3 pistils. A tea of the root is highly
astringent, used for diarrhea, hemorrhaging and varicose veins (Lust).
Sibbaldia—sibbaldia (1/1/1) S. procumbens. This is an arctic plant, also found in higher elevations in western states.
22
Dryad Subfamily—Dryadoideae
In the flowers and shrubs of the Dryad subfamily, the ovary
matures as a dry seed (achene). The style remains attached to the
ovary, usually forming a distinctive feathery plume attached to each
seed. (Also found in Geum triflorum and Fallugia paradoxa of the
Rose subfamily.) Like members of the Pea family, Dryads associate
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil, forming nodules on the
roots. The bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air and make it avail-
able to the plants. In exchange, the plants photosynthesize sugars
for the bacteria.
Cercocarpus—mountain mahogany (10/4/2) Astringent, yet laxative
(Moore). It contains some hydrocyanic acid (Phillips).
Chamaebatia—mountain misery (2/2/0) Native to California. The cut-leaf fe
vegetation has a strong odor, the source of the common name. _—‘Mountain \ |
eat ae } NN Rose Fa mily
Dryas—dryad, mountain avens (5/5/3) * Dryads are dwarf perennial
plants native to arctic and alpine regions of the northern hemi- _jegifoyiy ae ; Dryad Subfamily
sphere. Fossils of eight-petal mountain avens (D. octopetala) are
used as indicators to mark geological periods of cold temperature known as the Younger Dryas and Older Dryas stadials.
Medicinally, the astringent leaves are used in:tea (Sturtevant). Dryas is also the scientific name for a genera of butterflies.
Purshia—(including Cowania) bitterbrush (7/2/1) * Native to the West. The vegetation is an important food for antelope
and other wildlife. The seeds are collected and stored in quantity by mice (Craighead).
Almond Subfamily: Spiraeas—Amygdaloideae
; The Almond subfamily includes the former Spiraea, Plum, and Apple subfamilies. There was some genetic
overlap between these groups, which necessitated combining them. For example, some genera listed below were pre-
viously classified as Spiraeas, but are more closely related to Plums or Apples. Nevertheless, the traditional grouping
remains useful for the purposes of identification. .
Spiraea-type plants are mostly shrubs with foamy-looking, dense clusters of usually small white or pink flow-
_ers, often with stamens dangling beyond the petals. Unlike the Rose
subfamily, these plants do not have stipules on the leaves. The ovary is
positioned superior with 2 to 5 (rarely 1 to 12) simple pistils, which
may be partially fused at the base. Fruits of this group include capsules,
follicles (unicarpellate dry fruits that split along a seam), or sometimes
achenes (dry seeds).
Aruncus—bride’s feathers (1/1/0) A. dioicus. Eastern and western states.
Chamaebatiaria—desert sweet (1/1/0) C. millefolium. Native to the West.
Gillenia—Indian physic (2/2/0) Native to the eastern states.
Holodiscus—ocean spray (8/2/1) * The small, dry fruits were reportedly
; ws ee j -i : birchleaf
eaten by Native Americans (Craighead).
Lyonothamnus—Catalina ironwood (1/1/0) L. floribundus. Found only iN eS nae
Fie Dose gi, iS 3 piraea
on California’s Catalina Islands. SM ee = 228 Bs. betulifolia
Petrophyton—tock mat (4/4/1) Native to the western states.
Physocarpus—ninebark (10/5/2) ° The palmate leaves resemble the
Gooseberry family. Genetic evidence now places this genus closer to
Prunus than Spiraea.
Spiraea—spiraea, meadowsweet (100/22/3) * Spiraea is astringent,
diuretic, and it contains methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) and
other salicylates, similar to aspirin or willow. It is used especially for
rose spiraea
arthritis, rheumatism, and urinary tract infections (Schauenberg).
Spiraea douglasii
Spiraea is becoming a popular herb because the salicylate content
is much more reliable from plant to plant than willows or poplars.
Vauquelinia—Atrizona rosewood (2/2/0) Grows from Arizona to Texas. Rose Family
Genetically, this genus is closer to apples (Malus) than Spiraea.
Almond Subfamily: Spiraeas
93
Black knot on chokecherry branches is caused

by the fungus Apiosporina morbosa. Rose Family / Almond Subfamily: Plums
a Ny :
ra ‘ 774 4 “i
ak th / :
Ess mt Ae
ve chokecherry be thd” , ’
Ly Prunus virginiana pie ee Pde pies oe rk 4
2 pin cherry 4 i Prunus americana rs
; Prunus pensylvanica "%
Almond Subfamily: Plums—Amygdaloideae

Plums, cherries, apricots, peaches, nectarines, and almonds are all included in the Prunus genus. With most
of these species, we eat the fleshy fruit and throw the pit away, but in the almond (P dulcis), we discard the fleshy
fruit and crack open the pit to eat the nut. The ovary is positioned mostly or wholly superior and usually consists
of a single carpel (unicarpellate) (2 to 5 carpels in Oemleria) forming a single chamber that matures as a drupe (a
fleshy fruit with a stony seed). Next time you see one of these fleshy fruits, notice the “seam” down one side, and the
almond-like pit in the middle; those are the obvious marks of Prunus and it closest allies.
The fruits and/or nuts of any species of Prunus are technically edible, but the nuts contain amygdalin, a
glycoside that breaks down into benzaldehyde and cyanide. Benzaldehyde is the source of the bitter almond flavor,
often utilized in cooking. The degree of bitterness is a good indicator of
the concentration of amygdalin in the raw nut. Amygdalin, also known as
laetrile or Vitamin B17, is considered beneficial in small doses, but excess
consumption leads to cyanide poisoning. Cyanide prevents cells from utiliz-
ing oxygen in the bloodstream, resulting in asphyxiation at the cellular level.
Proper cooking, drying, and/or oxidation destroys the cyanide, making the
pit—or rather the nut inside the pit—edible.
Oemleria (a.k.a. Osmaronia)—osoberry, Indian plum (1/1/0) O. cerasiformis.
Native to the Pacific Coast.
Prunus—cherries, plums (200/30/4) * Chokecherries are the main wild crop from
this genus in Montana. I always thought they were nearly useless, because the
only processing method I knew was to boil out the juice and throw the pulp
away. As a “survivalist,” I like real food, and the juice was never quite good
enough. Then a Crow Indian woman showed me the native way of process-
ing them. Put the fresh berries on a metate stone and mash them up, pits
and all, and dry the mash. The nut inside the pit has an almond-like aroma.
The combination cherry-almond odor is richly intoxicating to work with
when mashing them on a rock. Like most of other members of this genus,
chokecherry pits contain a form of cyanide, but cyanide is easily destroyed
by: heat, sunlight, and oxygen. Mashing and drying the chokecherries renders
them safe to eat. The pit shells are crunchy, but surprisingly edible. I cook
the fresh mash and use it as a filling in “chokecherry ashcake turnovers.” The
beach plum
Prunus maritima
dried mash makes a passable trail mix. I can hand-pick one gallon of cherries
per hour, which take another forty minutes to mash with a rock. Read more
about chokecherries and plums in Foraging the Mountain West.
94
Rose Family / Almond Subfamily: Apples mG a black hawthorn

Crataegus
douglasii
serviceberry |
Amelanchier | mountain ash sips cockspur hawthorn
alnifolia : Sorbus aucupana Crataegus crus-galli
Almond Subfamily: Apples—Amygdaloideae

If you find a Rose family plant with fleshy fruits and a five-pointed star on the bottom then it belongs to
the apple group of the Almond Subfamily. The only other fleshy fruit of the Rose family with a five-pointed star is
the rose itself (see the Rose subfamily). In apple-type flowers, the ovary is positioned inferior, leaving the remains of
the flower attached to the tip of the fruit. The fruit is a false fruit known as a pome. Rather than being formed as a
swollen ovary, the fleshy fruit is formed from the enlarged receptacle around the ovary.
All of these apple-type fruits are more or less edible, although some, like the mountain ash (Sorbus), can be
highly sour-astringent. Other cultivated members of the Apple subfamily include the apple (Malus), pear (Pyrus),
plants
quince (Cydonia), loquat (Eriobotrya), Christmasberry (Photinia), and Pyracantha. The fruits of most of these
are sweeter after a frost. Note that berries from the Heath family / Blueberry subfamily have a similar five-pointed
star from the leftover sepals.
fruits, but it
Aronia—chokeberry (3/3/0) Aronia juice is available in many stores. The juice is best cold-pressed from the
can also be extracted through boiling and used for making jelly or syrup. See Natures Garden by Samuel Thayer.
fleshy, without
Amelanchier—saskatoon, serviceberry (20/17/2) * Many wild berries are all juice, but serviceberries are more
being too sweet or acidic. They are among my favorite berries, and I can easily eat a quart of them on site when I finda
perhaps best utilized as Native Americans did, dried in berry
good thicket. Serviceberries are good in pies and jams, or
for more details. Medicinally, the berries may be laxative,
cakes or used in pemmican. See Foraging the Mountain West
while the leaves and bark are astringent (Willard).
The Peking cotoneaster (C.
Cotoneaster—cotoneaster (95/16/1) * Introduced. Cotoneaster is often cultivated as a hedge.
into winter.
acutifolius) is common in Montana towns. The purple fruits are edible and often cling to the bushes
black, blue, red or yellow. Blue-black fruits tend to
Crataegus—hawthorn (200/170/4) ¢ All hawthorn berries are edible:
Hawthorns are packed with pectin; the fruits
be pulpy and delicious, whereas red fruits are more seedy and astringent.
them set. The western black hawthorn (C. douglasii)
can be boiled down and the juice added to jams and jellies to help
water, load into a clean
is especially pulpy. To separate the seeds, mash the fruit in a bowl, mix in a small amount of
that it jells shortly after squeezing. The pectin-rich
sock, and squeeze out the pulpy juice. The juice has so much pectin
with egg whites and sugar and frothed into
pulpy juice can be served as a dish that resembles cranberries, or combined
something resembling ice cream, as described in Foraging the Mountain West.
heart. Hawthorn is
Medicinally, the leaves, flowers and fruit are rich in flavonoids, especially beneficial to the
blood clots. It makes the blood vessels more
used to normalize arrhythmia, high or low blood pressure, and to reduce
hard (Klein).
flexible, reducing vascular resistance so the heart doesn’t have to pump so
is commonly cultivated in towns, where the fruits
Sorbus—mountain ash (100/10/2) * Western mountain ash (S. scopulina)
ingent flavor that we have not yet been
can be gathered in great abundance. Unfortunately, the fruit has such a sour-astr
domestica) has a good fruit and could
successful in making anything palatable from it. The European service tree (S.
be a good candidate for edible landscaping here.
a)
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Buckthorn
Some species have Sialic al whitethorn ceanothus

unisexual flowers. Ceanothus cordulatus
Rhamnus cathartica
Patterns of the
shrubs or small trees

with or without thorns
4or5S stamens—__ WW
4 or 5 petals—_
Buckthorn Family—Rhamnaceae.
If you find a dicot shrub or small tree with visibly three-parted capsules or berries, then it is likely a member
of the Buckthorn family. The foamy, white, greenish, or even blue spray of owers of Ceanothus is also hard to miss,
when in season. These shrubs have simple, and usually serrated, alternate or opposite leaves and sometimes thorns.
The flowers are mostly regular and usually, but not always, bisexual. There are 4 or 5 sepals, 4 or 5 (sometimes 0)
petals, and 4 or 5 stamens. The stamens are alternate with the sepals and opposite the petals. The ovary is positioned
superior or partly inferior, consisting of 3 (sometimes 2 or 4) united carpels, as indicated by the same number of
styles. Partition walls are usually present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule or berry with
1 (rarely 2) seeds per chamber. The sections of the ovary are often readily visible on the surface. Worldwide, there
are 58 genera and 900 species. Ten genera are found in North America, including Berchemia, Colubrina, Condalia,
Gouania, Krugiodendron, Reynosia, Sageretia and Ziziphus, plus the genera below.
Key Words: Shrubs or small trees with visibly three-parted capsules or berries.
Ceanothus—buckbrush, ceanothus, red root (80/50/3) * The fiowers and fruits of New Jersey tea (C. americanus) contain
saponin and can be used for soap (Craighead). The leaves are popular for tea. The root can be used for a red dye (Hall).
The root contains many acids, including tannin, and thus astringent, used in the conventional ways for inflamed tonsils,
sore throat, nosebleeds, menstrual hemorrhage, etc. Additionally, the root somehow stimulates “electrical repelling”
between the blood vessels and the red blood cells. Increasing the blood charge helps keep the red blood cells flowing
without clumping up. The enhanced flow is especially beneficial for headaches triggered by a heavy dinner, when fats
flood into the bloodstream. Increasing the blood charge also facilitates a better exchange between the blood vessels and
the lymph nodes to expedite the break down and removal of wastes. Red root helps to “tone” or improve and strengthen
the lymph tissues. It is beneficial to “healthy people under stress,” but it is not a heroic herb to treat sick people. For
more information please refer to Michael Moore’s Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West.
Rhamnus—buckthorn, cascara sagrada (155/12/3) * The berries of many species found in North America are reported to be
edible (Sturtevant), but may have laxative properties (Schauenberg). Rhamnus bark contains anthroquinone glycosides.
It is used as a powerful laxative that does not result in dependency (Willard). It is available commercially; the total
trade consumes | to 3 million pounds each year. It is recommended that the bark be aged for a year (Hall) or baked at
212°F for ten minutes (Bigfoot) before use. The fresh bark can cause severe diarrhea and vomiting. Native Americans
sometimes used it as an emetic to expel ingested poisons (Tilford).
96
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Rose > Family: Oleaster
; These are shrubs or small trees, often with silvery leaves

he Oleaster Family ; ; and gray or red-orange fruits.
sae buffaloberry a ;
| \
fi Canada \&
J buffaloberry
Shepherdia
canadensis
twig of
male bush
roundleaf } a & female flower male flower

buffaloberry Fo: 4 united sepals } 4 united sepals
Shepherdia ar \4 0 petals 0 petals
rotundifolia {= female bush a 1-chambered ovary J/ 4 or 8 stamens
Oleaster Family—Elaeagnaceae
The Oleaster family consists of usually thorny shrubs and trees with alternate or sometimes opposite leaves,
usually silvery in appearance due to the presence of minute hairs. Some species have small orange dots under the
leaves. Several members of this family prosper in valley bottoms where the soil is dry, but the water table is not far
below. Flowers are regular and mostly bisexual, but sometimes unisexual, with male and female flowers often appear-
ing on separate plants. There are 4 united sepals, often petal-like, and 0 petals. There are 4 or 8 stamens. The ovary
is positioned partly or wholly inferior, consisting of a single carpel. It matures as an achene (a dry seed), but looks
like a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed). The fleshy part is the swollen calyx (the sepals), not the ovary. World-
wide, there are 3 genera and about 50 species, all native to the northern
hemisphere. All associate with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Key Words: Shrubs or trees often with silvery leaves
and gray or red-orange fruits.
Elaeagnus—Russian olive, oleaster, silverberry, autumn olive (45/5/3) * The
introduced Russian olive (E. angustifolia) is well adapted to arid lands
and alkaline soil. It is cultivated in many areas, but naturalized in the
countryside, and often invasive. The fruits are astringent and margin-
ally edible. Our native silverberry (E. commutata) also produces edible
fruit, and unlike Russian olive it has no thorns. The inner bark was
used extensively for cordage material by Native Americans (Turner).
The ripe fruits of the introduced autumn olive (E. umbellata) have 7 to
17 times as much of the antioxidant lycopene as tomatoes.
Hippophae—seaberry, sea-buckthorn (3/1/1) 1. rhamnoides. An introduced
ornamental shrub from Russia with large yellow-orange, edible fruits.
Shepherdia—buffaloberry (3/3/2) * Red-orange fruits. Buffaloberries ripen
in late summer, but frequently remain on the bushes all winter. The
fresh berries are quite astringent, and they will really pucker your
mouth. Picking them after a hard freeze helps sweeten them. I like the
berries dried whole; they sweeten up quite a bit that way. It is much
more efficient to beat the berries out of the bushes with sticks than to
if Russian olive
handpick them. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West. Elaeagnus angustifolia
Russet buffaloberry (S. canadensis) grows in the mountains.
The saponin-rich berries are bitter, but were dried and eaten by the
Inuit (Heywood). The berries can be whipped into a froth and mixed
with sugar to make “Indian ice-cream” (Hart).
97,
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Gourd > Family: Gourd
white bryony Patterns of the Gourd Family wild cucumber

Echinocystis lobata
«
Bryonia alba oh Vining plants with tendrils and unisexual, funnel-like flowers
with yellow or white petals and an inferior ovary.
@ var, with 3 carpels—_
If creeping cucumber tery Mm \ buffalo gourd

Melothria pendula 4 Cucurbita foetidissima
Gourd Family—Cucurbitaceae
The Gourd family is as easy to recognize as pumpkins and squash in the garden. These are vining plants
with tendrils and typically palmate or palmately-veined leaves. The flowers are regular and unisexual, with male and
female flowers appearing on the same or separate plants. There are 5 separate sepals and 5 united petals (rarely 6 of
each), forming a funnel-shaped flower. In the staminate(male) flower, the 5 stamens (sometimes 3) are often twisted
together. In the pistillate (female) flower, the ovary is positioned inferior and consists of 3 united carpels (sometimes
4, as in Echinocystis above), as indicated by the same number of stigmas. Partition walls are present, Ss an equal
number of chambers. Notice the pattern when you cut across a zucchini or cucumber.
Worldwide, there are about 120 genera and 850 species, including 14 genera in North America. Priinppliia
squash, zucchini, and gourds belong to the Cucurbita genus of this family. Muskmelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, and
cucumbers belong to Cucumis. Other family members include watermelons (Citrullus), chayote (Sechium) and the
Luffa vegetable sponge. Pumpkin seeds contain alkaloids capable of arresting cell division, useful for certain types of
cancer (Schauenberg). Warning: Some genera contain toxic alkaloids.
Key Words: Vining plants with tendrils. Funnel-shaped flowers form 3-chambered fruits.
Bryonia—bryony (12/3/1) Introduced. The whole plant is poisonous. The root is used in minute quantities as an irritating
stimulant. Externally it may be used to irritate sore muscles or joints (a rubefacient) to stimulate healing. Internally, it
functions as an irritating expectorant, beneficial for congested lungs, or as an irritating purgative-cathartic to clear out
the digestive tract. Toxicity varies between species, but an overdose may lead to severe diarrhea, vomiting and death
within a few hours (Fern). This plant is not for amateurs.
Cucurbita—wild gourd, pumpkins, squash, etc. (20/8/0) * The raw seeds of pumpkins and other species contain cucurbitin
acid, a popular treatment for internal parasites. The concentration is extremely variable within the genus, even among
the many varieties of pumpkins (Tyler). Wild gourds (C. foetidissima and C. digitata), are not native to Montana, but I
have grown them from seed. The plants never put on fruit, apparently due to the short growing season in Montana, but
surprisingly, the plants prosper in spite of our extreme winters. The massive root of these plants contains large amounts
of saponin. It can be chopped and used for soap or fish poison. The seeds are edible after complete drying and roasting.
The plant and the gourd flesh have a strongly laxative effect (Bigfoot), possibly due to the saponins.
Echinocystis—wild cucumber (25/1/1) * E. lobata. Native across most of North America, except the southwest and south-
east. The fruit is not edible, but the seeds were roasted and eaten for kidney trouble (Murphey). The root has analgesic
properties. It may be pulverized and used as a poultice for headaches or brewed as a bitter tea and taken internally (Fern).
Marah—wild cucumber, manroot (7/6/0) * The fruits and seeds of the plants appear to contain saponins and narcotic al-
kaloids. The whole fruits can be crushed and used to stun fish, but with variable results. At least one death is attributed
to this plant. The victim made a tea of the seeds, possibly for its narcotic effect (Nyerges).
Melothria—creeping cucumber (12/1/0) M. pendula. Native from Texas to Pennsylvania to Florida. The green fruits are
edible, while the fully ripe black fruits are strongly laxative.
98
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Beech > Family: Walnut
Patterns of the Walnut Family

Aromatic trees with pinnate leaves and walnut-like fruits.
mockernut
eal
pinnate leaf
hickory
Carya alba
pecan
Carya illinoinensis
~female flower
‘staminate catkins
(male flowers)
black walnut
a Ovary matures as a walnut-like fruit with a husk. Juglans nigra
Walnut Family—/uglandaceae
Members of the Walnut family are generally resinous, aromatic trees with alternate, pinnately divided leaves.
Glandular dots beneath the leaves help to identify this family. Flowers are unisexual and wind-pollinated, with male
and female flowers usually appearing on the same trees (monoecious). Male flowers are borne in catkins, with 3 to 6
(sometimes 0) sepals, 0 petals, and 3 to 40 stamens (sometimes 100). Female flowers have 4 sepals and 0 petals. The
pistil consists of 2 to 3 united carpels fused together to make a single-chambered ovary. The extra carpels are aborted
and the ovary matures as a single hard-shelled nut enclosed in a husk. Worldwide, there are about 8 genera and 60
species, mostly walnuts. Our natives are listed below. Other cultivated genera include Platycarya and Pterocarya.
Key Words: Aromatic trees with pinnate leaves and walnut-like fruits.
Carya—pecan, hickory, bitternut, pignut (27/16/0) Hickory and its kin are processed and used similarly to walnuts. The
trees can be tapped for syrup (Hall, Gilmore).
Juglans—walnut, butternut (20/4/0) ¢ There are about twenty species of walnuts in the world. They all produce edible
nuts, but of varying quality. Walnuts are not native to the West, however some species are cultivated, especially the
black walnut (/. nigra). Black walnuts are mostly shell with little nutmeat inside. On a springtime walkabout in eastern
Oregon, some friends and I collected a bunch of black walnuts at an abandoned homestead. Cracking the shells and
picking out the meat with a sharp stick was tedious. I was able to extract only about one cup of nutmeat per hour of
effort, but it sure was good! One author recommends gathering the nuts in the fall and drying them before removing
the husks. After husking, the nuts should be crushed then slowly boiled in water. The oil and nut meats rise to the top,
while the shells settle to the bottom. The oil and meats can be used separately, or blended together to make walnut
butter, The trees can also be tapped for syrup in the springtime (Hall). (See the Soapberry family: Maples for more
information on wild syrup.)
is used
Medicinally, the leaves, bark, and husks are rich in tannic acid, with some bitter components. Walnut
mostly as an astringent, but also as vermifuge, internally to get rid of worms, externally for ringworm fungus. The green
husk is rich in vitamin C (Schauenberg). Butternut bark contains a naphthoquinone laxative (Hobbs). (Read about
the similar anthraquinone glycosides in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.)
Walnut husks are rich in tannins, especially useful for dye. Butternut husks make a rich purple dye, while
walnuts procude a black dye. Boil the husks to extract the pigment (Hall).
D9
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Beech > Family: Beech
Patterns of the Beech Family

ae ;
: tanbark oak
Lithocarpus
Ovary matures as a nut attached inside a scaly or spiny cap densiflorus
formed from numerous small bracts (modified leaves). Y American beech
Fagus grandifolia
Dein nc:
:
bur oak
dwarf chinkapin oak Quercus macrocarpa
Quercus prinoides
Beech Family—Fagaceae
Members of the Beech family are trees or shrubs, either deciduous or evergreen. The leaves are simple, alter-
nate and often toothed or lobed. The flowers are typically unisexual, with both male and female flowers appearing
on the same plant (monoecious). Most are wind-pollinated. Staminate (male) flowers have 4 to 6 sepals, 0 petals and
4 to 40 stamens. The pistillate (female) flowers have 4 to 6 sepals and 0 petals. The ovary is positioned inferior and
consists of 3 (sometimes 6) united carpels, as indicated by the same number of styles. The extra carpels are aborted
and the ovary matures as a nut, usually attached to a scaly or spiny cap formed of numerous small, overlapping bracts.
Worldwide, there are about 8 genera and 900 species in the family. Five genera are native to North America,
as listed below. Cork comes from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). Members of this family contain varying
amounts of tannic acid, making them astringent and diuretic.
Key Words: Trees or shrubs with single nuts attached to scaly or spiny caps.
Castanea—chestnut (8/6/0) Chestnuts are edible raw or cooked (Fern). Collect the fruit with gloves, then step on them to
break the husk and free the nuts. Score and ovenroast the nuts until the scores pull back to expose the yellowish seed
inside (Lincoff). The American chestnut (C. dentata) was abundant in eastern North America until the chestnut blight
was accidentally imported from Asia and wiped out about four billion trees.
Chrysolepis—chinquapin (2/2/0) Native to Pacific coast states. The nuts are edible raw or cooked (Fern).
Fagus—beech (10/2/0) Beech leaves are edible raw or cooked early in the spring. The seeds are rich in oil and high in protein,
edible raw or cooked, but should not be eaten in large quat:tities due to an alkaloid in the outer covering (Schauenberg).
The seeds may be dried and ground into flour. The roasted seed is used as a coffee substitute. The sprouted seeds are
also edible and reportedly delicious. Oil from the seeds may be used in cooking and salad dressings or in lamps (Fern).
Lithocarpus—tanbark oak (100/1/0) L. densiflorus. Native to California and Oregon. The nuts are edible like acorns after
leaching out the tannins, as described for Quercus, below (Thayer).
Quercus—oak (450/80/1) * Acorns are edible and highly nutritious, rich in carbohydrates, oil, and protein, but they also
contain tannins which must be leached out prior to use. The acorns should be cracked open and the nuts removed. The
nuts can be slow-leached whole or in chunks by suspending a net bag full of nuts in a stream for several weeks until
the tannins leach out. A faster method is to grind the nuts into flour, then stir the flour into a large quantity of cold
water and let it set for a few hours. Then pour off the water and repeat the leaching process through multiple changes
(typically six to twenty changes of water), until the acorn flour loses its astringent quality. For super-comprehensive
coverage of acorn harvesting and processing, be sure to read Samuel Thayer’s Natures Garden.
Medicinally, oaks are astringent throughout, due to the tannins. The bark also contains quercin, a compound
similar to salicin (like aspirin). The astringency is used internally for gum inflammations, sore throat and diarrhea.
Externally it is used for first and second degree burns. The tannin binds the proteins and amino acids, sealing off the
burns from weeping and from bacterial infection. The leaves can be chewed into a mash for use as an astringent poultice
(Moore). Oak galls, distorted growths caused by the gall wasp, also have a high tannin content; as much as 60-70%
in the galls of Q. lusitanica (plus 2-4 % gallic acid). The galls can be collected and used as dye (Pammel).
100
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Beech > Family: Birch
beaked hazelnut
Birch Family
black birch Corylus cornuta
Betula nigra
catkins hie jes American

gray alder hornbeam
Alnus incana Carpinus caroliniana®
Birch Family— Betulaceae (Cupuliferae)

The Birch family includes deciduous trees and shrubs with simple, toothed, alternate leaves with pinnate
veins. Flowers are wind-pollinated, with male and female catkins forming separately on the same tree (monoecious).
Staminate (male) catkins have small flowers with either 0 or 4 sepals, 0 petals, and 2 to 20 stamens. Pistillate (female)
catkins also have numerous small flowers, with 0 sepals and 0 petals. The catkins include bracts (modified leaves)
that may be mistaken for sepals. The ovary is usually positioned inferior and consists of 2 united carpels, as indicated
by the same number of styles. It matures as a nut or a winged seed. Worldwide, there are about 6 genera and 150
species, including filberts or hazelnuts (Corylus), which produce edible nuts. Members of the Birch family contain
varying amounts of tannic acid, making them somewhat astringent and diuretic. North American genera are listed
below.
Key Words: Trees or shrubs with cone-like catkins or nuts with attached bracts.
Alnus—alder (30/8/2) ¢ Alders are rich in tannins and excellent for producing orange or brown dyes for dying hides, cloth,
or yarn. Some Native Americans even dyed their hair. Medicinally, alder bark can be used as a potent astringent for
wounds, diarrhea, and so forth. It may be possible to make syrup from the sap of large alders.
Like plants of the Pea family, alders associate with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil, forming nodules on the
roots. The bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air and make it available to the trees. In exchange, the trees photosynthesize
sugars for the bacteria. The growth and decomposition of these trees is important for boosting soil fertility in northern
climates where cold temperatures otherwise limit nitrogen accumulation.
Betula—birch (50/10/3) © Birch trees can be tapped for syrup like maples in the early spring. The sap is about 50 to 60
parts water to 1 part syrup, so it must be boiled down extensively to get the syrup. (See the Soapberry family for more
information.) Birches also contain some amount of methy] salicylate oil, a substitute for wintergreen oil (Coon). The
bark and twigs are chopped, then simmered overnight and distilled. Medicinally, methyl salicylate oil is synthesized by
the body into salicylic acid (like willow bark), useful as an analgesic. A strong tea of bark or leaves can be used externally
as a wash for poison ivy or acne, or internally as a mild sedative (Brown). A compound called betulinic acid, derived
from the bark, is being tested on some types of skin cancer. The bark also can be boiled and then folded into a variety
of useful containers. The highly resinous bark is useful for fire-starting, even when wet.
Hazelnut Subfamily—Coryloideae
The Hazelnuts are variously treated as a subfamily or tribe of the Birch family, or as its own family, Corylaceae.
Carpinus—American hornbeam, blue beech, musclewood (35/2/0) The seed is reportedly edible in emergencies. The leaves
are astringent, used in conventional ways (Fern).
Corylus—hazelnut, filbert (15/3/ 1) The nuts of all species are edible raw or cooked. The nuts are sweet and comprised of up
to 65% oil. The nut is sweetest during the “milk” stage, prior to maturity. Medicinally, oil from the nut is said to be a
gentle remedy for pinworm and threadworm infections in babies and small children. The leaves and bark are astringent.
The inner bark of at least some species is fibrous, suitable for making cordage or paper (Fern).
Ostrya—ironwood, hop-hornbeam (8/2/0) A tea of the bark is taken for intermittent fevers and nervousness (Hutchins).
101
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Soapberry > Family: Soapberry
Soapberry Family—Sapindaceae
If you need to get clean, the Soapberry family can help. Some
trees have nut-like seeds that are rich in soapy saponins. North American
members of the Soapberry family are trees with either pinnate (Sapidus)
or palm-like digitate (Aesculus) leaves. The flowers are bisexual and regular
or slightly irregular, grouped in a cluster at the end of a stem. There are
typically 5 united sepals and 5 separate or basally united petals, plus 5
to 10 stamens. The ovary is positioned superior, consisting of usually 3
united carpels, but only one carpel normally develops into a fruit, typically
a single, large nut-like seed encased inside a leathery or translucent “peel.”
Worldwide, there are about 150 genera and 2,000 species, but
the description here is specific to North American genera, as listed below.
Taxonomists now include the former Horse Chestnut family (Hippocas-
tanaceae) and Maple family (Aceraceae) within the Soapberry family. Maples
are described separately on the facing page for ease of identification.
Saponins can be extracted by mixing the crushed seeds with water.
wingleaf soapberry The mix can be worked into a soapy lather and used to wash your hair or
Sapindus saponaria added to your laundry. Saponins are effective at removing dirt but not
oils. Saponins also break down red blood cells. Saponin-rich plants can
be mixed into slow moving waters to stun fish, since the saponins are ab-
sorbed directly into the bloodstream through their gills. Read more about
saponins in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Key Words: Trees with large, nut-like seeds

Soapberry Family encased in a leathery or translucent “peel.”
Aesculus—buckeye, horse chestnut (13/8/0) * The name “horse

chestnut” could be confused with the true chestnut (Castanea)
: (aS
of the Beech family. w EN horse chestnut
I once puréed slices of a fresh buckeye seed in the 2, Aesculus

blender and used the resulting soap in the washing machine, * ee” hippocastanum
which worked quite well. It is one of the easiest sources to obtain
saponins. Buckeyes can be used for fish poison (Weiner).
Despite the high saponin content, buckeyes may be
somewhat edible. The seeds must be crushed and the bitterness
leached away by soaking in cold water (Sturtevant), making it
more of a survival food than a real staple. Caution is advised, as
there are reports of poisonings from consuming the green seed
casings (Schauenberg). Roasting apparently renders them safe
(Lust).
Medicinally, in addition to the saponins, there is tan-
nic acid and coumarin glycoside in the seeds. An extract of the
seeds increases blood circulation, in this case apparently helpful
to stimulate digestion (Schauenberg). An extract from the seeds
can be used to treat varicose veins (Cook).
Sapindus—Soapberry (12/2/0) Beneath the hard peel, the seed is
covered by a sweet-sour pulp that is edible (Sturtevant), but
most people consider it repulsive (Fern).
Eco Nuts® and NaturOli™ laundry soaps, available
online, are made from the dried husks of S. mukorossi, originally
native to India. -
102
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Soapberry > Family: Maple
Soapberry Family: Maples

Trees with opposite, usually palmate leaves
and winged seeds in pairs.
Rocky Mountain maple

Acer glabrum
leaves opposite
and palmate
box elder
Acer negundo
red maple
Acer rubrum
Soapberry Family: Maples

Almost everyone recognizes the maple leaf from the Canadian flag, if not from trees themselves. The op-
posite, usually palmate leaves are a good pattern for recognizing maples. Many people will also remember tossing
the winged seeds into the air to make “helicopters.” If you examine the flowers in springtime, you will find 4 or 5
separate sepals, sometimes colored like petals, and 4 or 5 (sometimes 0) separate petals. The flowers are typically, but
not always, unisexual, with male and female blossoms appearing in separate blossoms, often on separate trees. Male
flowers have 4 to 10 stamens. In female flowers the ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels with
partition walls usually present. The ovary matures as two winged seeds, called samaras. Based on genetic evidence,
taxonomists reclassified the traditional Maple family as part of the Soapberry family. Note that ash (Fraxinus) of the
Olive family has similar clusters of winged seeds, but the seeds are not in touching pairs.
Key Words: Trees with opposite leaves and winged seeds in pairs.
Acer—maple, box elder (110/15/3) * Most maple syrup comes from the sugar maple (A. saccharum), but all other maples can
be tapped for syrup as well, with varying results. The box elder was once used extensively for syrup production where
sugar maples were not available (Harrington). I put two taps in my neighbor's tree in mid March (late in the season)
and collected about six gallons of sap in three weeks. This boiled down to 1.5 cups of thick, rich syrup—a real treat.
The sap “runs” in the trees on warm days from January to May, depending on where you live. To collect the
sap, drill a hole 1 inch in diameter and 3 inches deep into the trunk of the tree, about 2 feet above the ground and on
the south side. I use a short length of 3/4 inch PVC pipe for a spout. The hole should be drilled in at a slight upward
angle and the spout tapped in only partway. A notch can be made into the top of the PVC pipe to hold the wire handle
ofa bucket, or you can use sheetrock screws to attach the bucket or its handle to the tree trunk. A large tree (16+ inches
of
in diameter) can have more than one tap. The sap is mostly water, so it is boiled down to remove at least 30 parts
water to get 1-part pure maple syrup. The sap is high in B vitamins, calcium, phosphorus and enzymes (Angier).
The Rocky Mountain maples (A. glabrum) native to my area are more like bushes than trees, with a maxi-
mum trunk diameter of about 3 inches. The best method for these little trees is to drill a 1/4-inch hole an inch at an
angle into the trunk. Make two slashes in the bark, forming a V down to the hole. (Do not slash all the way around
I use
the tree—that will kill it.) Pound a stick into the hole, and the sap will run out and drip off the end of the stick.
drip stick. These small trees only produce a pint of sap per
a battery-powered drill to screw a plastic bucket below the
day and the syrup content is low. It took me a month to get a pint of syrup from eight trees!
Maple seeds are bitter, but edible after boiling (Couplan).
103
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Soapberry > Family: Cashew
Patterns of the Cashew or Sumac Family

eastern )
poison ivy >
Toxicodendron
radicans
yt —trifoliolate leaf —~
(3-parted)
Y
5 or 10 stamens.
NY
4?
~~.
=>
= no,
leaves
pinnate leaf
Cashew or Sumac Family—Anacardiaceae

If you have ever had a rash from poison ivy or poison oak, then you have met the Cashew family. These are
trees or shrubs with alternate, often trifoliate or pinnate leaves, and usually resinous bark. The flowers can be either
unisexual or bisexual, with 5 (sometimes 3) sepals united at the base and 5 (sometimes 3 or 0) petals. There are 5 or
10 stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 3 (sometimes 1 to 5 ) united carpels forming a single
chamber. Only one carpel matures, forming a drupe (a Heshy fruit with a stony seed).
Worldwide, there are about 70 genera and 600 species. North American genera are listed below. Several
members of the family produce oils, resins and lacquers. Zebrawood (Astronium) is well-known as an exotic hardwood
for furniture. The family name comes from the cashew tree (Anacardium). Rhus and Toxicodendron are the only genera
found across the frost belt of North America. Most other members of the family live in the tropics, with a few repre-
sentatives cultivated across the southern states, including the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus), mango (Mangifera) and
pistachio (Pistacia). The introduced hog plum or mombin (Spondias) grows on disturbed sites in southern Florida.
Key Words: Shrubs with three-lobed or pinnate leaves and single-seeded red or white fruits.
Cotinus—smoketree (2/2/0) Native and introduced species are found from Texas to Ontario.
Malosma—iaurel sumac (1/1/0) M. laurina. Native to southern California and Mexico.
Metopium—Florida poisontree (1/1/0) M. toxiferum. Native to Florida.
Pistacia—pistachio (15/3/0) Our native pistachio (P mexicana) grows in Texas and Mexico. Other species are cultivated.
Rhus—sumac, lemonade berry (100/15/2) * The bright red berries are high in calcium and potassium malates, and the
leaves and bark contain gallic and tannic acid (Moore, Densmore). The berries can be infused into cold water to make
a good lemonade-type drink. The leaves and bark are astringent (the berries less so), used in the typical ways: sore
throat, diarrhea, etc., with particular reference to cold sores (Moore). The leaf tea is recommended for asthma (Willard).
Toxicodendron—poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac (30/5/1) * These plants were formerly included within Rhus. The
fruits of all Rhus species are orange or red, while Toxicodendron species have white or yellowish berries.
Poison ivy contains a non-volatile phenol-type oil, called 3-n-pentadecylcatechol, or more commonly, urushiol.
Urushiol gives the leaves a shiny, waxy appearance and is the agent that causes dermatitis. Not everyone is susceptible
to poison ivy and the potency changes throughout the year (Harrington), usually becoming stronger with age. I am
not usually bothered by poison ivy, but I did once lead a friend through a leafless patch in winter, causing unbelievable
rashes and swelling. She is so allergic that she even reacts to mango (Mangifera) juice on her skin, which is from the
same family. }
On the other hand, Peter Bigfoot wrote that he was allergic to poison ivy until he saw a deer browsing on the
foliage in the spring-time when it is sweet, then he started eating it too. The poisonous oil may be dilute enough at
that time of year to mildly stimulate the immune system without causing an adverse reaction. This practice could be
extremely dangerous. The effects would certainly vary from one individual to another and a toxic reaction could cause
your throat to swell shut, leading to asphyxiation. Likewise, burning the plant puts the oil in the air, where it can be
inhaled into the lungs. Medicinally, poison ivy was once used externally to treat the symptoms of herpes (Weiner).
104
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Mallow > Family: Mallow
Patterns of the Mallow Family
Numerous stamens are fused together

to make a column around the pistil.
rd 5 separate
palmate leaves
Va petals
5 sepals
(may be united)_
Shan
superior
Munro's
\\ Fruit splits globemallow
apart at (modified leaves) Sphaeralcea
hollyhock munroana
Alcea rosea the carpels
(Althaea rosea) in some species.
Mallow Family—Malvaceae
If you have seen a hollyhock or hibiscus, then you know the Mallow family. Mallow leaves are alternate and
usually palmately lobed. Crushed leaves and flowers have a mucilaginous or slimy quality, which can help identify
the family. The Mallows have distinct, funnel-shaped flowers. The flowers are regular and often surrounded by several
bracts, with 3 to 5 partially united sepals and 5 separate petals. There are numerous stamens united to form a distinc-
tive column around the pistil. The ovary is positioned superior and typically consists of 5 (rarely 1, but sometimes
up to 20) united carpels, as indicated by the same number of styles. Partition walls are present, forming an equal
number of chambers. The ovary matures as a capsule, a schizocarp (the round “cheese” in the illustration), or rarely
as a winged seed or berry. Worldwide, the traditional family includes about 85 genera and 1,500 species. Genera
common to North America are listed below. There are many additional genera in Texas and/or other southern states.
Taxonomists now consider the former Basswood (Tiliaceae) and Cacao (Sterculiaceae) families (and several others) as
subfamilies of the Mallow family, as treated on the following page.
Many plants from the traditional Mallow family contain natural gums called mucilage, pectin, and asparagin,
which can be whipped into a marshmallow-like froth. Most Mallow family greens and flowers are edible, but not
widely used, probably due to their slimy consistency. However, okra (Abelmoschus) is favored for its mucilaginous
quality in gumbo. Medicinally, the Mallows tend to be mucilaginous, like Aloe vera or cactus. They are useful exter-
nally as an emollient for soothing sunburns and other inflamed skin conditions, and internally as a demulcent and
expectorant for soothing sore throats.
Key Words: Mucilaginous plants and flowers with numerous stamens fused into a central column.
A. indicus is a
Abutilon—Indian mallow (150/18/1) Native and introduced species are found throughout North America.
A. theophrasti
source of fibers (Pammel). The flowers of two foreign species are known to be edible (Sturtevant), but our
has a strong odor and may be poisonous (Pammel).
The
Alcea—hollyhock, marshmallow (60/2/1) * Introduced. Taxonomists split hollyhocks out of Althaea to form Alcea.
leaves are edible as a salad green or potherb. Marshmallow s were originally derived from A. officinalis. Medicinally,
cordage material in
these plants are listed as demulcent, diuretic, and emollient (Lust). Hollyhocks make acceptable
the winter when the dead stalks have lain in the snow long enough for the outer layer to moisten and separate.
Anoda—anoda (23/7/0) Native from California to New York, south to Florida.
Callirhoe—poppymallow (9/9/0) Native from Arizona to North Dakota, east to the Atlantic.
s and
Gossypium—cotton (50/2/0) ° Originally native to Florida, Mexico, and south. The seeds of cotton are mucilaginou
cooking. A tea from the bark of the root has been used as a stimulant
oily. The oil from the seeds is sometimes used in
105
Mallow Family Plants
x ‘ fy ij
ipZoe
I,
high mallow
cotton Malva sylvestris crested anoda
Gossypium spp. Anoda cristata
for menstruation, contractions during birth, and abortions. Cotton is the only member of this family with documented
poisonous properties (Pammel). Do not use without medical supervision (Lust).
Herissantia—bladdermallow (5/1/0) H. crispa. Native to the southern states from California to Florida.
Horsfordia—velvetmallow (4/2/0) Native to California and Nevada:
Hibiscus—hibiscus, rosemallow (200/24/1) * Native and introduced species are found across North America. The various
species are generally mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent. (Lust). The flowers of some species are commonly used
in commercial herbal teas. They are rich in citric, malic, and tartaric acids (Schauenberg). Kenaf (H. cannabinus) is
grown as a fiber crop for making paper. H. syriacus is popularly known as Rose of Sharon.
Iiamna—wild hollyhock (8/6/1) Native from the Pacific Ocean to the Rocky Mountains.
Lavatera—tree mallow (5/5/0) Mostly introduced species are scattered across the continent.
Malva—mallow, cheeseweed (30/8/6) * Introduced and natural-
ized throughout North America. M. neglecta is edible as a
salad green or potherb and works as a good stew thickener.
The green fruits are a popular snack found in the lawn and
garden. Learn how to make wild marshmallows in Edible
Wild Plants: Wild Foods from Dirt to Plate by John Kallas.
Medicinally, a poultice of the leaves helps to break down
and remove damaged tissues while increasing white blood
cell activity in the area (Moore).
Malvastrum—false mallow (19/6/0) Native and introduced
species are found from Arizona to Pennsylvania and south.
Modiola—bristlemallow (1/1/0) M. caroliniana. Native to the
southern states, from California to Virginia.
Napaea—glademallow (1/1/1) N. dioica. Native to the north-
eastern states.
Sidalcea—checkermallow (25/25/2) Native from Alaska to Texas.
Sphaeralcea—globemallow (60/22/2) * Native to the western
two-thirds of North America. The plant and root are mu-
cilaginous and soothing (Bigfoot). The tea is used for lower scarlet globemallow
urinary tract infections. (Moore). Sphaeralcea coccinea
106
Cacao Subfamily—Sterculioideae
Everyone knows the Cacao subfamily—at least in the form of
chocolate. The seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) are processed
to make cocoa powder and cocoa butter, used in innumerable popular
sweets. Flowers from this subfamily resemble true Mallows, but typically
with only 5 or 10 stamens (sometimes numerous), which are not fused
together as a column. The fruit is a leathery or woody follicle or capsule.
Like true Mallows, the vegetation has a mucilaginous quality.
The traditional family included about 70 genera and 1,500 spe-
cies of tropical trees and shrubs. North American genera are listed below.
Further taxonomic research may significantly revise this subfamily.
Ayenia—ayenia (50/9/0) Native from California to Florida.
Fremontodendron—flannelbush (3/3/0) * 3 sepals. Native to California
and Arizona.
Melochia—pyramidflower (54/4/0) Native and introduced species are
found from Texas to New York. Subfamily
Cacao
/Family
Mallow
Waltheria—uhaloa (50/1/0) Native from Arizona to Florida.
Basswood Subfamily— Tilioideae

To the casual observer, Basswoods do not share an obvious con- Galffomia fanhelbued
nection to the true Mallows. These are trees and shrubs with simple, |Fremontodendron californicum
alternate leaves, often asymmetrical at the base. Basswoods generally have
narrow petals and numerous stamens, which are vor fused together as a column. The traditional family included about
about 50 genera and 450 species, mostly in the tropics. But Taxonomists demoted the Basswoods to a subfamily of
the Mallow family and segregated all but 3 genera into other subfamilies. Only Tilia is native to North America.
Key Words: Trees with the flower/berry cluster

suspended from a leaf-like bract.
Tilia—basswood, linden tree (50/5/0) * Linden trees can be

distinguished from other trees by the slender, leaf-like bract
that supports the flower cluster. Linden trees are native to
eastern forests, but are often cultivated in the West.
Reportedly, the fruit and flowers can be ground up
to produce a chocolate flavor. There were attempts long ago
to commercialize it as a chocolate substitute, but it was too
perishable for shipping and storage. The tree may also be
tapped for syrup (Sturtevant) (see the Soapberry family for
more information). The young leaves are somewhat mucilagi-
nous and edible raw. The flowers are also edible, but caution
is advised, as narcotics may develop as they age (Fern).
Linden provides quality cordage material. Cut long
strips of bark from the tree (please use some ethics here) and
soak them in water for at least a week to separate the inner
bract and outer bark. The inner bark can be split into narrower
(modified leaf) strips with the aid of a fingernail. The material can be made
into cordage at this point, or for extra strength you can boil
the fibers in a mix of ashes and water for about twenty-four
hours (Jaeger). .
American basswood
Tilia americana
Mallow Family / Basswood Subfamily
107
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Mustard > Family: Beeplant
redwhisker clammyweed
Polanisia dodecandra
ovary often matures

as a pod-like capsule
— 6+ stamens — bs AN \\
(rarely 4)
NY
é
united as one chamber _{\—S A My ~~4 separate petals
(bicarpellate ovary) “et . i V4 cae 4 separate sepals
\ ai
|
regular or slightly
irregular flowers
Rocky Mountain beeplant

Cleome serrulata \GZPatterns of the Beeplant Family
Beeplant Family—Cleomaceae
If you find a plant that looks like a hybrid between the Mustard and Pea families, it is likely a member of
the Beeplant family. Beeplants are closely related to the Mustard family, but resemble Pea family plants in the shape
and curvature of the seed pods. Many species also have ttifoliate or palmate leaves like clovers and lupines of the Pea
family. Beeplants were formerly placed within the Caper family, Capparaceae, but genetic research places them closer
to Mustards than Capers, earning them a new family of their own.
The Beeplants are mostly herbs or shrubs with trifoliate, al-
ternate leaves, like those shown above. The flowers are regular or
slightly irregular, and bisexual with 4 separate sepals, 4 separate
petals, and 4 to numerous stamens. The ovary is positioned supe-
rior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber. It
matures as a capsule with 1 or more kidney-shaped seeds. World-
wide, there are about 8 genera and 275 species. North American
genera are listed below. Many species are adapted to desert or
tropical conditions. Only Cleome and Polanisia are widespread
across the continent.
Key Words: Mustard-like flowers with pea-like pods.
Cleome—beeplant (200/12/2) * The young shoots and leaves can be used
as a potherb, boiled in two or three changes of water. The seeds are
edible. Native Americans boiled the plant down for an extended
time to produce a dark paint (Harrington). Medicinally, the tea is
reported to be taken for a fever (Murphey). '
Cleomella—stinkweed (20/11/0) Native to the desert Southwest.
Isomeris—California bladderpod (1/1/0) LZ. arborea. Also known as
Cleome isomeris. Native to southern California.
Polanisia—clammy weed (5/5/1) Redwhisker clammyweed (P dodecan-
dra) is widespread across North America.
Oxystylis—spiny caper (1/1/0) O. lutea. Native to the Mojave Desert
yellow beeplant
in southern California and adjacent Nevada.
Cleome lutea
Wislizenia—spectacle fruit (10/1/0) W. refracta. Native to the Southwest.
108
Clade: Eudicots / Rosids > Order: Mustard > Family: Mustard
“~ 4 petals
eee: sepals
4 tall stamens ~
(e) sta mens at
2 short
Patterns of the
Mustard Family
Mustard seed pods come in many shapes
and sizes, but always occur on the plant in
wallflower the same radial pattern around the stalk, a i ~The seed pods
Erysimum "raceme". ; split open from
% both sides to
\\ expose a clear
membrane in
the middle.
Mustard Family— Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

Key Words: 4 petals and 6 stamens—4 tall and 2 short
Mustards are as easy to recognize as radishes (Raphanus) in the garden. In fact, many plants in the Mustard
family have a similar life cycle: they shoot up fast in the spring, bloom, and then set seed and die while other plants
are just getting going. Mustards are adapted to colonizing barren ground, so they tend to grow and reproduce quickly,
before the soil dries out. If you see a bunch of weedy-looking plants in newly disturbed soil, at least some of them
are sure to be Mustards! Look close at the flowers. There are 4 sepals, 4 petals, and 6 stamens (2 short, 4 long). The
petals are often arranged like either the letters X or H, and they may be deeply split, making it appear as eight petals.
The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a silicle or
silique, meaning a pod where the outside walls fall away leaving the translucent interior partition intact. Look for it
on dried specimens. Mustard seed pods come in many shapes and sizes, but they always form a raceme on the flower
stalk, which looks something like a spiral staircase for the little people (see illustrations). The crushed leaves usually
smell more-or-less like mustard.
Worldwide, there are about 340 genera and 3,400 species. About 55 genera are found in North America.
Horseradish (Armoracia, page 218) has been propagated with pieces of the root for so long that it no longer produces
Commercial
viable seed. Other cultivated mustards include watercress (Nasturtium), turnip and mustard (Brassica).
the
mustard is usually made from the seeds of the black mustard (B. nigra) mixed with vinegar. Canola oil comes from
kohlrabi, Brussels
seeds of B. napus and B, rapa. Interestingly, six of our common vegetables—cabbage, cauliflower,
up the starch-storage
sprouts, broccoli, and kale—were all bred from a single species, B. oleracea. Plant breeders bred
abilities in different parts of the plant to come up with each unique vegetable.
Medicinally, Mustards contain varying concentrations of acrid sulfur glycosides, which are basically irritants.
on the chest to warm the
Mustards can help stimulate digestion, or in concentration be used as a “mustard plaster”
_ chest and help stimulate coughing to clear the lungs. Read more about sulfur glycosides in the Medicinal Properties
section of this book.
109
Edible and Medicinal Properties of Mustard Family Plants

Alyssum—alyssum (150/8/2) * Introduced. The common garden alyssum (A. maritimum) has been reclassified as Lobularia
maritima. It is edible.
Arabidopsis—mouse-ear cress (12/3/1) A. thaliana was the first plant to have its entire genome sequenced.
Arabis—tock cress (100/70/15) * The flowers and basal leaves are edible. The stem leaves may be too bitter (Angier).
Barbarea—bittercress, creasy greens (12/3/1) * The leaves can be used as a salad green or potherb (Hall).
Berteroa—false alyssum (5/2/1) Introduced. Petals are deeply split.
Brassica—mustard (50/10/5) * The leaves can be used as a salad green or potherb. The seeds can be used for seasoning.
Medicinally, the seeds can be ground into a powder and mixed with flour and water to make a mustard plaster (Hall).
Applied externally like a poultice, the plaster is an irritant, stimulating activity underneath the skin. Prolonged contact
can cause serious inflammation (Lust). Members of this genus contain sulfur glycosides (Geller).
Cardaria—whitetop (3/3/3) * Introduced from Eurasia. Most mustards are annuals that spread by seeds, but the C. draba
is an invasive perennial plant that also spreads by lateral underground stems, called rhizomes. Once established, a patch
may continue to spread by several feet per year.
Camelina—false flax (8/3/2) Introduced from Eurasia. C. sativa is cultivated as an oil crop. (Sturtevant).
Capsella—shepherd’s purse (8/1/1) * C. bursa-pastoris. Introduced. The seeds are used for seasoning (Hall) or cooked and
ground into meal (Olsen). The root is a substitute for ginger (Harrington). The seeds dumped into still water will kill
mosquito larvae (Willard). Medicinally, shepherd’s purse is astringent and diuretic; it is especially known as a potent
vasoconstrictor and coagulant. The tea can be used internally or externally to stop bleeding; it is commonly used for
women’s mid-cycle bleeding. It may also equalize blood pressure (Willard), but it can have inconsistent effects, causing
either vasodilation or hypertension. As an astringent and diuretic, shepherd’s purse is good for the urinary tract and
bladder, and it stimulates phosphate recycling in the kidneys. It is given during birth to stimulate uterine contractions
(Moore). It is also a remedy for diarrhea (Kloss).
Cardamine—bittercress (170/45/5) The whole plant is edible as a salad green or potherb. The root is hot like horseradish.
Chorispora—crossflower (13/1/1) C. tenella. Introduced from Asia. The plant is edible (Sturtevant).
Conringia—hare’s ear mustard (6/1/1) C. orientalis. Introduced from Eurasia, and now widespread in North America. Edible.
Descurainia—tansy mustard (46/8/3) * Native and introduced species are found across the continent. The plant can be
used as a potherb; boil in two or three changes of water. The seeds can be used as meal (Harrington). It is unrelated to
common tansy (Zanacetum) from the Aster family.
Draba—whitlow grass (350/100/18)
Eruca—tocket salad (3/1/1) E. sativa. Introduced from Europe. The plant is edible as a salad green (Sturtevant).
Erysimum—wallflower (180/22/3) * The plant, mashed with water, canbe applied to prevent sunburn (Weiner). -
Hesperis—tocket (60/1/1) * H. matronalis. Introduced and often cultivated for its purple or pale flowers. Rocket is edible
as a salad green.
Isatis—dyer’s woad (30/1/1) L. tinctoria. Dyer’s woad was introduced from Europe and cultivated as a source of blue dye.
It is the same dye extracted from true indigo (/ndigofera tinctoria) of the Pea family, but it is less concentrated in Jsatis.
Lepidium—pepperweed (170/40/1) * Native and introduced species are found across the continent. Clasping pepperweed
(L. perfoliatum) was one of the very first edible plants I learned as a child. It is edible in a salad or as a potherb (Duke).
The freshly bruised plant has been used as a treatment for poison ivy (Vogel).
Lesquerella—bladderpod (78/78/3) * This genus is being merged into Physaria.
Nasturtium—watercress (50/5/1) * Watercress (NV. officinale) was introduced from Europe. It is now widespread and one of
our few greens of winter. It can be found growing in the water near natural springs. Rice cooked with watercress is one
of my favorite meals on camping trips. Watercress is rich in vitamin C, iron and iodine (Lust). Medicinally, watercress
is a mild diuretic and stimulant. Prolonged use may lead to kidney problems, and consumption is not advised during
pregnancy (Lust). Note that the common garden nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) belongs to its own family, Tropaeolaceae.
Physaria—twinpod (85/14/3) Native to the western half of North America. Used as a cure for sore throat (Murphey).
Rorippa—yellowcress (80/20/7) * Native and introduced species are found across North America. The plants are edible.
Sisymbrium—tumble mustard (80/10/4) * Introduced. Tall tumble mustard (S. altissimum) is a delicious wild edible. The
tender young tops look and taste a lot like broccoli, but with a sharp mustard bite. The plant can be used as a salad or
potherb. The seeds can be gathered and used for meal or seasoning. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West. Medici-
nally, tumble mustards are used similarly to the Brassicas (Lust).
Stanleya—prince’s plume (6/6/2) * Native to the western half of North America. The fresh plant has an emetic effect, but
is reportedly safe to eat after boiling in several changes of water (Murphey). The plant requires selenium in the soil for
proper growth and is used as an indicator of this mineral.
Thlaspi—pennyctess (70/6/2) * Introduced and widespread across North America. The plant can be used as a salad green
or potherb in small amounts, but the flavor is disagreeable in any quantity.
110
field pepperweed
ye Lepidium campestre
7(Awe
a
am
ae
Yip
of
/
3 Sf
ant
—fs
4
——
rocket
false flax Hesperis matronalis
Camelina sativa
|
cyomanoN Uf |
\
Thlaspi arvense QA
Q
shepherd's purse
Capsella
bursa-pastoris
bittercress
Barbarea vulgaris
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Sandalwood > Family: Sandalwood
American mistletoe 2
Phoradendron 4 or 5 united
—
\ flowers unisexual
\ or bisexual
SxF
bastard toadflax
a Patterns of the Sandalwood Family ©" #metis

Sandalwood Family—Santalaceae (including Viscaceae)
Have you ever been kissed under a mistletoe? If so, you have met one member of the Sandalwood family.
Sandalwoods are parasitic plants that feed off of other plants, but they also have chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
In past classification systems, the Sandalwood family was separate from the Mistletoe family (Viscaceae).
Sandalwoods are ground-dwelling plants parasitic on the roots of other plants, while Mistletoes are arboreal plants
that feed off tree branches. But genetic testing consolidated these two families within the Sandalwoods.
The flowers are regular and either bisexual or unisexual, with 3, 4, or 5 sepals (rarely 2), but 0 petals and
the same number of stamens as sepals. The stamens are aligned opposite the sepals (meaning in the middle of them),
instead of alternating with them. The ovary is positioned partly or wholly inferior and consists of 2 to 5 united carpels
forming a single chamber. It matures as a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed) or sometimes as an achene (a dry
seed). Worldwide, there are about 40 genera and 950 species. Note that parasitic plants can absorb toxins from their
hosts. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Parasitic green or grayish plants without true petals.
Arceuthobium—dwarf mistletoe (42/19/5) * Parasitic on the Pine and Cypress families. Dwarf mistletoes often blend in
and vaguely resemble the tree’s own foilage. A single species of mistletoe is often parasitic on a single species of tree.
Native Americans drank a tea of the plant for tuberculosis and lung or mouth hemorrhages (Moerman).
Buckleya—piratebush (4/1/0) B. distichophylla. A rare shrub, parasitic on hemlock trees in the Appalachian Mtns (Cook).
Comandra—bastard toadflax (1/1/1) * C. umbellata. The common nameis g@, 4
misleading since there is a flower in the Plantain family called “butter S
and eggs toadflax.” The berries are edible. A tea of the plant was used
for canker sores by the Native Americans (Moerman).
Geocaulon—false toadflax (1/1/1) G. lividum. Formerly Comandra livi-
dum. Native to moist boreal forests from Alaska to Newfoundland.
Nestronia—leechbush (1/1/0) NV. umbellula. Native to southeastern states.
Phoradendron—American mistletoe (300/13/0) * American mistletoe
contains the alkaloid acetylcholine (Moore). It has been prescribed
for epilepsy, stroke, and tuberculosis (Klein). A tea of the plant or
the raw leaves acts as a strong vasoconstrictor and thus raises blood
pressure. It has been used to stimulate contractions during childbirth
with variable results. It can be dangerous (Moore).
Pyrularia—buffalo nut (1/1/0) P pubera. Parasitic on deciduous trees in
the Appalachian Mountains (Cook).
Thesium—thesium (325/1/1) T arvense. Introduced to Montana and
North Dakota from the Old World. pineland dwarf mistletoe
Viscum—mistletoe (70/1/1) V. album. Introduced to California. Arceuthobium vaginitum
12
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Buckwheat
tee 5 or 6 petal-like sepals meadow bistort

Se Polygonum bistorta
buckwheat 0 petals
Eriogonum °° 29 ¢
. allenii 3-9 stamens
OY)
L superior ovary with 3 styles
ie matures as triangular ¢4 <
or lens-shaped seed. \.
Bags q
=
we
Patterns of "4.
Bie ea
= : €
Pye, mountain sorrel FP canaigre dock “7Aey

the Buckwheat Family “ * Oxyria digyna Rumex hymenosepalus*
Buckwheat Family—Polygonaceae
The Buckwheats have simple, toothless leaves and often swollen joints, or nodes, on the
stems (polygonum = “many knees”), plus lots of small flowers in clusters or spikes. There are typi-
cally 5 or 6 sepals, sometimes colored like petals and often in two layers, but no true petals, and gm 2
3 to 9 stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 3 united carpels, as indicated by on, ?
the same number of styles. The carpels are united to form a single chamber. It matures as a dry ob.
seed, usually brown or black and triangular or lens-shaped, sometimes with wings.
Worldwide, there are about 40 genera and 800 species, including 15 genera in North
America. Sour juice, from oxalic acid, is common in this family. Many plants of this family also 1 b
contain tannic acid and anthraquinone glycosides. (See the Medicinal Properties section.) \.¥
0 petals, and triangular seeds. ) \|7
Key Words: Small flowers with colored sepals,
seeds are ground ap \y,
Eriogonum—wild buckwheat (250/ 230/15) * The leaves are edible as a potherb. The
into meal or flour (Olsen). These are astringent plants, useful internally and externally (Sweet).
Fagopyrum—buckwheat (15/2/1) Fagopyrum is a “pseudocereal.” True cereal grains come from the Grass te |
family, but buckwheat is used similarly. My grandmother frequently made buckwheat pancakes. \ 4
Naly
Oxyria—mountain sorrel (1/1/1) ° O. digyna. Mountain sorrel is edible as a salad or potherb. It
a
contains oxalic acid (Willard).
1y
Polygonum—smartweed, knotweed, bistort (200/70/23) * The leaves and shoots of many species are
/
edible in the spring before becoming too astringent (Angier). American bistort (2 bistortoides)
roots are also astringent, but quite edible when cooked, with a flavor like nuts. The seeds are also
edible. I sometimes snack on the whole flowers.
Rheum—tbubarb (40/1/1) © R. rhabarbarum. Rhubarb was often planted by homesteaders and min-
\p
ers, It often survives long after the people and buildings are gone. The chopped stems make great
\\ iy
pies, but the leaves contain toxic levels of anthraquinone glycosides.
degrees. A \
Rumex—dock, sorrel, canaigre (200/50/12) ° The docks and sorrels are all edible to varying
™ " sheep
Generally “sorrels” are lemony-tasting, while “docks” are more astringent. Changing the wateronce
require leaching to W sorrel
or twice while cooking can tame the flavor The seeds are said to be edible, but
glycosides t pes
take away their astringent nature. The roots are even more astringent. Anthraquinone
. The leaves fr
with purgative properties appear in numerous species of Rumex (Geller, Schauenerg)
of R. hymenosepalus may be toxic (Bigfoot), probably due to concentrated anthraqui nones.
113
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Pink
Pink Family—Caryophyllaceae
The next time you see a carnation or pink (Dianthus), stop and examine the vegetation and flowers. The
coarse, durable stem and leaves are characteristic of this family. The leaves are usually positioned opposite on the
stems, but are sometimes whorled. Members of the Pink family have regular, bisexual flowers with 5 sepals (rarely -
4). The sepals can be united or separate. There are 5 usually separate petals (rarely 4, or sometimes numerous in
domestic varieties). The petals are often split at the ends. There are 5 or 10 stamens (rarely 3 or 4), appearing in one
or two whorls. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 to 5 (rarely 1) united carpels, as indicated by the
same number of styles. Carpels are united to form a single chamber. The ovary matures as a dry capsule with numer-
ous seeds and opens by valves at the top. Worldwide, there are about 80 genera and 2,000 species, including about
40 genera found in North America.
Many species of the family contain at least a small amount of saponin, most notably the soapwort plant
(Saponaria). Plants with a significant saponin content can be mashed in water and used as a soap substitute. Read
more about saponin under the “Glycosides” heading of the Medicinal Properties section of this book. Several plants
in the Pink family have edible greens or seeds.
Key Words: Coarse plants with parts in 5s and split petal-ends.
Achyronychia—onyxflower (1/1/0) A. cooperi. Colored sepals. 0 petals. Native to the deserts of California and Arizona.
Agrostemma—corncockle (2/1/1) A. githago. Introduced from Europe. The plant and especially the seeds contain saponin.
People and livestock have been poisoned when large quantities (over 40%) of Agrostema seed have been mixed in feeds
and flour (Pammel).
Arenaria—sandwort (210/22/12) * The plant is boiled as a vegetable or fermented like sauerkraut (Sturtevant). A tea of
the plant has diuretic properties (Kadans); it is also used asan eye wash (Murphey).
Cardionema—sandcarpet (6/1/0) C. ramosissimum. Grows on west coast beaches. Often encouraged for erosion control.
Cerastium—field chickweed (100/25/5) * Field chickweed isn’t as tender as Stellaria, but still very edible.
Dianthus—carnation, pink, sweet william (300/12/3) ¢ Introduced throughout North America.
Drymaria—drymary (48/8/0) Found from Arizona to Florida.
Geocarpon—tinytim (1/1/0) G. minimum. A rare plant, native to Missouri and the surrounding states.
Gypsophila—baby’s breath (126/8/1) * Showy baby’s breath (G. elegans) is used in floral arrangements. G. paniculata is
invasive in many areas. A species of baby’s breath from Spain is known to contain saponin and a sapotoxin (Pammel).
Holosteum—jagged chickweed (3/1/1). H. umbellatum. Introduced from Eurasia.
Lychnis—campion (10/5/3) ¢ Several species from this genera were reclassified as Silene.
Minuartia—stitchwort (175/32/6) Formerly included within Arenaria.
Paronychia—nailwort (40/28/1) Native throughout North America, except the Pacific
Northwest.
Pseudostellaria—starwort (21/2/1) Grows from Montana to Texas, west to the Pacific.
Sagina—pearlwort (30/10/1) Native and introduced species are found throughout
North America.
Saponaria—soapwort, bouncing bet (30/1/1) S. officinalis. Introduced from Europe.
I love the sweet, sweet smell of the flowers. The plant contains saponin. It can be
crushed in water for use as a soap substitute. I used a blender and added it to the
washing machine. It works! A tea of the root is used. as an expectorant, purgative
and diuretic (Lust).
Scleranthus—knotgrass (10/2/1) Introduced from Eurasia.
Silene—moss campion, Indian pink (400/50/13) At least some species are edible as
potherbs (Kirk, Willard), although many species may be too dry and woody to
eat. Medicinally, S. stellata and S. virginica have been used to expel worms (Coon).
common chickweed : ens
Slalais moda Spergula—spurry (5/2/1) The seeds are edible; they have been harvested in times of
scarcity (Sturtevant).
Spergularia—sand spurry (60/12/3) Found throughout North America. :
Stellaria—chickweed (100/30/14) * The common chickweed, S. media, is an import from Europe. Sometimes the green
plants can be found growing in the midst of winter in snow-free space underneath trees. The whole plant is edible
and delicious as a salad green or potherb. Chickweed has demulcent, diuretic, laxative and mildly anti-inflammatory
properties. A poultice or tincture is used externally to reduce swellings from sprains or arthritis (Moore), or to sooth
minor burns and itchy, dry skin (Tilford). It contains at least some saponin (Densmore).
Vaccaria—cow cockle (1/1/1) Vaccaria hispanica. Introduced from Europe. It is found across much of North America.
114
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Pink
common corncockle
corncockle Agrostemma githago
Vaccaria
hispanica field chickweed
Cerastium arvense
positioned
bladder campion superior
Silene latifolia
(Lychnis alba)
5 petals, often
with split ends
} -—— 5 sepals
(separate or united)
Ovary matures as a dry capsule,

usually with numerous seeds.
Patterns of the
Pink Family
moss campion
Silene acaulis,
opposite
leaves <_
~ soapwort
sweet William hi Saponania officinalis
Dianthus barbatus an
115
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Sundew
Sundew Family—Droseraceae
Sundew family plants have an appetite for bugs. These are rare plants, often found in moist, but nutrient-
poor soils. They have specialized leaves with sensitive appendages, called trichomes, that respond to the light touch
of insects. The Venus flytrap leaf (Dionaea) snaps shut when triggered. The sundew leaf (Drosera) is covered with |
sticky mucilage that initially traps an insect, while other trichomes wrap around an insect as the leaf folds closed.
The plants digest the insects with enzymes and acids, then open the leaf to drop away the indigestible exoskeleton.
The flowers
“a\\ have 5 sepals united
©) &
10 Pte
- stamens
5OK
stamens
5 petals ——/_
Ai 4
at the base and 5 sepa-
rate petals (rarely 4 of
each). Most species
have 5 stamens, but
there are 10 to 20 in
5 sepals- \
Venus flytrap
Dionaea. The ovary
Dionaea muscipula
Patterns of the n is positioned supe-
rior and consists of
Sundew Family 2, 3, or 5 united car-
Insectivorous plants with pels forming a single
trap-like or sticky leaves.
chamber, at least at
. pf > I the base. It matures
| NUTS “di 4 ' e- asa capsule with sev-
eral to many seeds per
carpel.
Worldwide,
there are 3 genera
and about 200 spe-
cies. The waterwheel
roundleaf sundew plant (Aldrovanda)
» Drosera rotundifolia
is native to the Old
World. The Portuguese sundew (Drosophyllum) has been segregated into its own family, Drosophyllaceae. The distant
Bladderwort and Pitcher Plant families are also insectivorous. Our native Sundews are listed below. Do not harvest
these plants in the wild and buy only those that have been propagated from cultivated stock.
Key Words: Insectivorous plants with active trapping systems

Dionaea—Venus fly trap (1/1/0) D. muscipula. The Venus fly trap is native to the East Coast, primarily in North and
South Carolina.
Drosera—sundew (194/10/2) The juice of the plant is acrid; it has been used to remove warts and even freckles, but it can
raise a blister on the skin (Willard). For tea, the plant is usually boiled, instead of steeped. These plants have antispas-
modic, expectorant and antibiotic properties. An alcohol tincture may be required to extract the antibiotic properties.
Caution is advised with this plant. Larger doses can irritate your system (Lust).
116
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Amaranth
Amaranth/Goosefoot Family—Amaranthaceae (including Chenopodiaceae)

If you have ever weeded a garden then you have probably encountered more than one member of this fam-
ily. Pigweeds (Amaranthus) and lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium) thrive in disturbed garden soils and manure-rich
barnyards. These weeds are as edible and tasty as anything else that can be grown in a garden.
The traditionally separate Amaranth and Goosefoot families were known to be closely related, and are now
considered a single family with multiple subfamilies, based on genetic research. Plants from the traditional Amaranth
family are included on this page, while those of the former Goosefoot family follow on the next two pages.
Amaranths usually have dense clusters Q\ |
of flowers without any petals, although each \ love-lies-bleeding
flower may be enclosed by 3 green or colored, pcm

often pointed bracts. Flowers are usually, but not
always bisexual. There are 4 or 5 sepals, 0 petals,
and the same number of stamens as sepals. The
ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2
or 3 united carpels forming a single chamber.
It matures as a lidded capsule, called a pyxis,
usually with only one seed per flower. In some
species it forms a utricle instead, a one-seeded
bladder-like fruit, or rarely a drupe (a fleshy fruit
with a stony seed).
The traditional Amaranth family in- Amaranth
cluded about 60 genera and 900 species world- ,
: ; :
wide, mostly in the tropics. North American
; redroot amaranth
maranthus retrofiexus Subfamily
genera are listed below. Only Amaranthus is
widespread in the northern latitudes.
Key Words: Plants with dense clusters of small flowers enclosed by 3 colored bracts and 0 petals.
Amaranth Subfamily—Amaranthoideae
Achyranthes—chaff flower (13/2/0) Introduced. Found from Texas to Maryland.
Amaranthus—amaranth, pigweed (70/40/7) *Amaranth leaves and tender stem tips are edible as a salad or potherb and
rank among the most nutritious wild greens, being especially high in iron, calcium, protein, and vitamin C. (Kallas).
_A. caudatus was cultivated by the Aztecs. The seeds are now a common ingredient in many food products.
The seeds of our weedy amaranths can also be harvested. Cut the whole, dead stalks in the fall and place them on a
tarp, then beat the seeds out with a stick and winnow away the chaff. The seeds are small and hard and thus may need
to be ground into flour to be reasonably digestible.
Celosia—cockscomb (50/4/0) Native and introduced species are
found from Texas to Vermont. Often cultivated.
Globe Amaranth Subfamily—Gomphrenoideae

Alternanthera—(80 /11/0) Native and introduced species are
found across the southern and eastern states. Alligatorweed (A.
philoxeroides) is an invasive plant that forms dense, sprawling
mats on southern waters.
Blutaparon—silverweed (4/1/0) B. vermiculare. Texas to Florida.
Froelichia—snake cotton (15/5/0) From California to the northeast.
Gomphrena—globe amaranth (100/8/0) Arizona to Massachusetts.
Gossypianthus—cotton flower (2/1/0) G. lanuginosus. Native from
New Mexico to Louisiana.
globe 1. * a.
Guilleminea—matweed (5/1/0) G. densa. From California to Texas.
Tresine—bloodleaf (70/5/0) Native from Arizona to Pennsylvania. amaranth ‘| cockscomb
Often cultivated. Gomphrena Celosia
globosa argentea
Tidestromia—honeysweet (6/5/0) Native from California to Il-
linois. Globe RraavandA subtamily
117
ovary postioned
superior
with 2 styles
. fourwing
5 stamens saltbush
0 petals ne canescens
~~ § sepals
united at the base
or completely fused
7 f a
;Amaranth Family
strawberry
Goosefoot Subfamily }
goosefoot
Chenopodium |amb’squarters =
capitatum Chenopodium album
Goosefoot Subfamily—Chenopodioideae
Look closely at a spinach plant the next time you see one going to seed in the garden. Notice the little green
“globs” forming along the upright stalk, sometimes colored with specks of yellow, the sign of pollen and stamens...
yes, these globs are true flowers! If you find a weedy plant without petals, but with either globby or prickly flowers
clustered along the stems, it is likely you have a Goosefoot or one of its allies. Examine the flowers with a lens to see
5 (sometimes fewer) sepals, often united, and 0 petals. There are an equal number of stamens as sepals. The ovary is
positioned superior and consists of 2 (rarely 3 to 5) united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a nutlet.
Ragweeds (page 172) of the Aster family can superficially resemble Goosefoots.
The traditional Goosefoot family included about 100 genera and 1,500 species, which are now segregated
into this and the following subfamilies. Spinach (Spinacia) belongs to the Goosefoot subfamily. Domestic chard and
beets belong to the Beet subfamily. Both were bred from Beta vulgaris, originally from the coast of France. Note that
greasewood (Sarcobatus) has been segregated out into its own family, Sarcobataceae.
Most Goosefoots are edible in salads or as potherbs. The plants are rich in calcium and other minerals, but
may accumulate nitrates when there is excess chemical or manure fertilizer in the soil and no irrigation. (Nitrate ac-
cumulation can also occur in crops such as lettuce, corn, celery, broccoli, and wheat.) Nitrates are harmless for normal,
healthy adults, but can be converted to nitrites in the immature digestive systems of infants under six months of age,
theoretically blocking oxygen uptake and potentially resulting in suffocation. Nitrates are not generally considered a
threat to people over six months of age (Kallas). The seeds.of most species are also edible. Many species accumulate
salts from the soil. They can be utilized as salt substitutes, either whole or burned and the ashes used. A salty taste is
a good indicator for any of the following subfamilies. Saponins are also common.
Key Words: Weedy plants with globby or prickly flowers, found in disturbed or alkaline soils.
Atriplex—saltbush, orache (150/90/10) * This genus is exceptionally variable. Four-wing saltbush (A. canescens) and other
saltbushes are rugged, grey bushes adapted to desert conditions, while the common orache (A. hortensis) greatly re-
sembles spinach-like edible goosefoots (Chenopodium). Orache is one of my favorite, introduced, semi-wild greens.
(Read more in Foraging the Mountain West.) Pinole is a Southwestern drink made with the parched, ground seeds of
four-wing saltbush, plus sugar and water (Bigfoot). The seeds from all species are likely edible.
Axyris—Russian pigweed (5/1/1) A. amaranthoides. Introduced. Grows across Canada and the northern states.
Krascheninnikovia (formerly Ceratoides or Eurotia)—winterfat (8/1/1) K. lanata. As the common name implies, winterfat
is an important winter range plant.
Chenopodium—goosefoot, lamb’s quarters, quinoa, epazote, wormseed (200/50/11) * The Latin “ Cheno-podium” means
“goose-foot,” in reference to the shape of the leaves. Lamb’s quarters (C. album) was introduced from Europe, and is
often found in gardens. It thrives is disturbed, manure rich soils, hence the common name. It contains more calcium
than any other plant ever analyzed, plus lots of riboflavin, vitamins A and C, and protein (Kallas). Most goosefoots are
delicious as salad greens or potherbs, and highly nutritious. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West.
118
Quinoa (C. quinoa) seed is sold as a hot cereal at many health

food stores. Blite goosefoot (C. capitatum) and leafy goosefoot (C. fo-
liosum) develop fleshy bright red berries around the seeds. The berries
are bland and uninteresting compared to real berries, but easy to gather
and highly nutritious.
Epazote or wormseed (C. ambrosioides) is found from coast-
to-coast across the southern states, most common in the Southwest.
The seeds contain a potent and bitter oil used as an anthelmintic to kill
intestinal parasites. Excess consumption could be toxic (Moore).
Cycloloma—winged pigweed (1/1/1) C. atriplicifolium. Seeds are edible (Kirk).
Grayia—hop sage (1/1/1) G. spinosa. Native to the West.
Monolepis—poverty weed (3/3/1) The plant is edible as a potherb (Harrington).
Suckleya—suckleya (1/1/1) S. suckleyana. The plant contains a poisonous
cyanogenic substance that can form hydrocyanic or prussic acid in the
digestive system (Harrington). Similar cyanide compounds in other
plants are typically destroyed by cooking.
burning bush
Camphorosma Subfamily—Camphorosmoideae Epes ateorp a \
Bassia (including Kochia)—smotherweed, kochia (20/6/4) The plants contain
some saponins. The young leaves or seeds of B. scoparia are known to
be edible in moderate quantities. Also known as “burning bush,” the
plant turns red as it ages. Camphorosma Subfamily
Russian Thistle Subfamily—Salsoloideae

Halogeton—saltlover (5/1/1) H. glomeratus. Native to the
West. Halogeton contains an oxalate that may poison
sheep (Booth).
Salsola—Russian thistle (100/6/2) * Introduced. One of
the most common tumbleweeds in the West, along
with tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum) of
the Mustard family. The young plant is edible as a
potherb. The seeds are also edible (Harrington). The
dry plants are spiky.
Bugseed Subfamily—
Corispermoideae
Corispermum—Bugseed (65/9/2)
Grows in all states and prov-
inces west of the Mississippi.
Seepweed Subfamily—
Russian thistle
Salsola kali
Suaedoideae
Suaeda—Seepweed (110/13/3)
Subfamily
Seepweed
Amaranth Family The plant is edible as a pot-
herb; it has a salty flavor. The
Russian Thistle Subfamily seeds are also edible. (Kirk).
Pickleweed Subfamily—Salicornioideae
Allenrolfea—iodine bush (3/1/0) * A. occidentalis. Grows in desert alkaline environments, from
Oregon to Texas.
Salicornia—pickleweed, glasswort (30/4/1) The plant is edible as a salad, pickle, or potherb (Kirk).
It is high in salt and can be'added to stews to provide salt flavoring (Olsen). Salicornia and
several other salty plants were used in early glass-making. The plants were dried, then burned
in a heap. The ashes were added to sand for crude glass-making, or leached with lime water herbaceous
to make caustic soda. The moisture was then evaporated away to leave crystals of mostly pure seepweed
sodium hydroxide, used for making finer glass (Mabey). Suaeda maritima
119
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Purslane
Miner’s Lettuce Family—Montiaceae

What would you eat if you joined the gold rush, and set up camp miles away from the nearest garden or
grocer? You might try miner’s lettuce. The name has been given to many edible plants found near mining camps,
but especially stuck with a few plants in the Miner's Lettuce family.
Plants of the Miner’s Lettuce family are succulent herbs with regular, bisexual flowers. There are usually 2
sepals and 5 petals, but a few species have 2, 3, 4, or 6 petals, and the bitterroot (Lewisia) has up to 18 petals. (In
some books the 2 sepals are considered bracts (modified leaves) and the petals are considered colored sepals.) There
may be an equal or double number of stamens as petals, or they may be numerous. The ovary is positioned superior
and consists of 2 to 8 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule that opens along three seams,
or by a cap-like top. A few species prefer the shade of trees, but most members of this family seem particularly
adapted to dry areas with intense sunlight. Worldwide, there are about 19 genera and 580 species. North America
genera are listed below. Most are found in the western states. The bitterroot (Lewisia) is the state flower of Montana.
Many plants in the family contain some amount of oxalic acid, giving a a mild lemon-like taste. Read more about
oxalic acid in the Medicinal Properties section of this book. The plants of this family were previously included in the
Purslane family (below).
Key Words: Succulent plants often growing in intense sunlight. Two sepals.
Calandrinia—ted maids (150/2/0) Red maids are native to the Pacific Coast states. The plants and seeds are edible.
Cistanthe—pussypaws (35/11/1) This genus includes plants formerly included in Calyptridium, Calandrinia, and Sprague.
Claytonia—spring beauty, miner’s lettuce (26/26/11) * Several species have small, potato-like roots that are edible raw or
cooked. I can only harvest about a cup of roots per hour of work, but it is very much worth the effort. Cooked spring
beauty roots taste as good or better than buttery “new potatoes.” Read more in Foraging the Mountain West. The whole
plant is good as a salad or potherb. The spring beauty was a favored crop of Native Americans here in Montana (Hart).
See also Montia, below.
Lewisia—bitterroot (19/19/4) * Bitterroot is the state flower of Montana, and it is legal to harvest it, but be sure to dig
only in areas of extreme abundance. The starchy roots are edible. Kirk says to peel the roots or rub them vigorously
between the hands to remove the bitter bark, or to boil the bitterness out. Sweet says to boil them and then peel them.
Bitterroot has a well-known history as one of Montana’s premiere native food crops. In an experiment, I col-
lected over a gallon of the whole plants in a one-hour harvest in May. Trimming away the vegetation left approximately
1.5 quarts of roots. Peeling off the bitter bark took another eight hours! The peeled roots cook up nicely in a stew. They
are starchy, gelatinous, and filling. However, it is important to remove al/ of the red bark. Even a little bit will make
the whole stew bitter beyond edibility.
The Flathead Indians monitor the bitterroot crop each spring to see when the bark slips easily off the root,
usually late April or early May. Then they have a big harvesting day to collect the year’s supply. I have stumbled across
a few plants at just the right time, and yes, the bark slides right off.
Montia—miner's lettuce (12/8/4) * Several members of the genus have been shuffled to Claytonia. The plant is succulent
and tasty as a salad green or potherb. Medicinally, the tea miay be used as a laxative (Sweet). The common name “miner's
lettuce” is confusing, because the same name was given to many different wild plants that were eaten by early miners.
Phemeranthus—fameflower (25/17/0) Various species found primarily from the Rockies east to the Atlantic.
Talinum—flame flower (15/3/0) Flame flower grows in the Southwest. Several species were shuffled to other genera, with
the remaining Talinum segregated into an independent family, Talinaceae.
Talinopsis—atrroyo fameflower (1/1/0) 7. frutescens. Native to Texas and New Mexico.
Purslane Family—Portulacaceae
The Purslane family originally included all the plants of the Miner's Lettuce family (above), but genetic
analysis revealed that Portulaca is more distinct and should be an independent family. Purslanes are mostly fleshy,
succulent annual herbs with 2 sepals, 5 to 7 short-lived petals, and typically 6 to 40 stamens (sometimes more or
less). The ovary is positioned at least half inferior, and consists of 2 to 8 united carpels forming a single chamber. It
matures as a lidded capsule with many seeds. The family has been reduced to just the one genus.
Portulaca—purslane; moss rose (100/11/1) * Common purslane (P oleracea) is a succulent, edible, reddish-green plant
found growing flat on the ground, with fat stems and small, fat leaves. The whole plant is edible raw or cooked. Try
frying some in a little oil or butter. Purslane is surprisingly high in carbohydrates (Harrington, Storer), as well as pro-
teins, omega 3 fatty acids, antioxidants and vitamin E (Gillaspy). Moss rose (P grandiflora) is also edible, as is likely
the case with all Portulaca.
120
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Purslane
fringed redmaids_.
Calandfinia ciliata —
Patterns of the
Miner’s Lettuce and
-Purslane Families
miner's lettuce
Claytonia perfoliata
Virginia
spring beauty
Claytonia virginica
pussypaws
| Cistanthe umbellata |
_— ovary matures
as a capsule
1x or 2 X as many
stamens as petals
(sometimes numerous)
"~usually 5 petals
a varies from 2 to 18)
2 sepals
(separate or united)
‘
e purslane
flower
moss rose \ bitterroot

Portulaca Lewisia rediviva
grandifiora
common purslane
Portulaca oleracea
1941)
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Four O’Clock
great bougainvillea
Bougainvillea
spectabilis
# sand verbena
jAbronia /atifolia
baal
sweet four o'clock

Mirabilis longifiora
Four O’Clock Family—Nyctaginaceae

If you live or travel to southern states, then you have likely encountered the ornamental Bougainvillea, with
its showy red or pink bracts (modified leaves). Next time, take a closer look at the flowers. Plants of the Four O’Clock
family sometimes have colored bracts, plus typically funnel-shaped flowers with 5 (rarely 3 to 10) united sepals col-
ored like petals, and 0 petals. There are usually 5 (sometimes 1 to 3) stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and
consists of a single carpel. It matures as a dry seed (an achene). The sepals persist
as the ovary matures.
Worldwide, there are about 30 genera and 300 species. Fif-
teen genera are native to North America, mostly found in warmer Four O’Clock Family
climates. Only a few species are found in the northern latitudes.
_— 5 petal-like sepals
The flowers of Mirabilis bloom late in the day, hence the com-
united as a tube
mon name for the family.
0 petals
Key Words:
Tubular flowers with 5 colored sepals and no petals. usually 5 stamens
(sometimes 1 to 3)
Abronia—sand verbena (50/23/2) The name “sand verbena”
could be confused with the unrelated Verbena family. The
roots of three species are known to be edible, with some superior
specimens reportedly large and sweet (Fern). Another species ovary
was used by the Ute as a remedy fof stomach and bowel troubles.
The tea is also reported to be diuretic (Murphey).
Allionia—windmills (2/2/0) Native to the Southwest.
Boerhavia—spiderling (40/16/0) Among the species listed, the leaves are edible
(Zomlefer), as are the cooked seeds and roots. The roots are rich in carbohydrates and proteins, but may have a woody
texture. The roots contain an alkaloid that causes a rise in blood pressure (Fern).
Mirabilis—four o'clock (60/35/3) Some four o’clocks have large roots rich in carbohydrates and proteins, but they may
have mildly narcotic properties. The mashed root is used as a local analgesic. Taken internally, the root raises blood
sugar levels, acting as a temporary stimulant and appetite depressant. Larger doses lead to a feeling of well-being and
hyperactivity followed by slurred speech and befuddlement. It also has a purgative and gas-producing effect (Moore).
Clade: Core Eudicots > Order: Pink > Family: Cactus
Cactus numerous hedgehog cactus

stamens Echinocereus
petals_ K IN afd polyacanthus
a ; yf
plains pricklypear
Opuntia polyacantha
y, beehive cactus
a’ Coryphantha robustispina
Cactus Family—Cactaceae
Plants of the Cactus family are easy to recognize with their fleshy stems and spines. The spines are actually
highly modified leaves. The regular, bisexual flowers are showy with numerous sepals, petals, and stamens. The ovary
is positioned inferior and consists of 3 to 100 united carpels, as indicated by the same number of styles. The carpels
are united to form a single chamber, which matures as a pulpy, often spiny “berry” with numerous seeds. The cacti
originated in the New World. Worldwide, there are about 125 genera and more than 2,000 species. Sixteen genera are
found in North America. Some well-known members of this family include peyote (Lophophora williamsii), saguaro
(Carnegiea or Cereus), Christmas cactus (Zygocactus), and the barrel cactus (Ferocactus). The spines of some species
were once used as phonograph needles (Smith). Some plants from the Spurge family resemble cacti.
Key Words: Succulent desert plants with spines. Flower parts numerous.
Coryphantha—bechive cactus (300/7/2) * Coyphantha are sometimes included in Mammillaria. The plant and fruit are
edible raw or cooked (Olsen). C. missouriensis barely rises above the soil surface, making it nearly invisible underfoot.
Echinocereus—hedgehog cactus (70/40/0) ¢ Hedgehog cactus grows in the Southwest. It is easy to collect and peel. It can
be used as a poultice for cuts and burns, or eaten raw or cooked. It is rare and should be used sparingly.
Opuntia—prickly pear (200/60/2) © Spiny fruits and cactus pads are edible. The large pads of some species are cultivated as
food in Mexico and can be purcased in ethnic grocery stores. The texture is slimy like ocra, but interesting to explore.
The big spiny “berries” of some species become quite colorful and sweet as they ripen. Trim away the spines and make
jelly much as you would for any other fruit.
The plains pricklypear (O. polyacantha), common in northern states, has small pads, big spines, and lots of prickly
hair-like “glochids.” The plant isn’t very useful as food, but fun to taste, and it makes an excellent salve for sunburns. To
get the slimy flesh, select a thicker pad, but leave it attached to the plant. Hold the pad still with a stick or rock in one
hand, and slice it in half with a knife to make two flat halves. Scrape out the slimy green goo with the edge of a knife.
Medicinally, the mucilage can be used like Aloe vera. It osmotically draws out waste material from bruised, burned,
or other injured tissues, while soothing those tissues with its slimy quality (Moore). This mucilage is a complex sugar
called a mucopolysaccharide. A similar mucopolysaccharide forms a “hydrogel” between your body’s cells. This gel can
dry out or break down after an injury, especially from a burn or sunburn. Wipe a cactus pad over the burn to replenish
your own mucopolysaccharide gel. Repeated applications can heal a bad sunburn and prevent peeling. Prickly pear
has a hypoglycemic effect for adult-onset diabetes. Refer to Michael Moore’s Medicinal Plants ofthe Desert and Canyon
West for more information. Prickly pear juice is also used as a mordant for setting dyes (Hart).
Pediocactus—ball cactus (8/8/1) Native from Washington to New Mexico.
123
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Dogwood > Family: Dogwood
Opposite leaves red osier dogwood Pacific dogwood

Cornus sericea
~ “Tin most species Comus nuttallii
J of Comus.
/
Ovary matures
as a drupe.
Many species have~

colorful bracts that
look like petals.
4o0r5 stamens—(\ }
Am, \ Ne 4
@\ _4 or 5 petals— Re
Oo or 5 rast
4 =
ovary with 2 carpels |
bunchberry dogwood
Comus canadensis | {i Patterns of the Dogwood Family
Dogwood Family— Cornaceae (including Nyssaceae)
The flowers of many dogwoods (Cornus) are illusionary. There are often 4 (sometimes more or none) showy
white or pinkish bracts (modified leaves) that look like petals, while the actual flowers are much smaller and clustered
together in the center. The individual flowers are regular and usually, but not always, bisexual, with 4 or 5 (rarely 0)
small, separate sepals, and a similar number of usually white, separate petals. There are 4 or 5 stamens (double in Nyssa).
The ovary is positioned inferior, consisting of 2 (sometimes 1, 3, or 4) united carpels, usually (not always) forming
a single chamber. It matures as a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony pit), or rarely as a berry. As currently described,
the Dogwood family includes 7 genera and about 110 species, of which only dogwoods (Cornus) and tupelo (Nyssa)
are native to North America. Most species of Cornus have opposite (rarely whorled) leaves. Only Cornus alternifolia
has alternate leaves, as do all species of Nyssa.
Key Words (Cornus):

Trees, shrubs, or woody plants with opposite or whorled leaves, showy bracts and fleshy fruits.
Cornus—dogwood, bunchberry (58/22/2) * The red, white, and black fruits of
blackgum tupelo
Nyssa sylvatica at least eight species are known to be edible, although some are very bitter
or acid tasting (Sturtevant), and some may be strongly laxative in excess.
The cornelian cherry (C. mas), introduced from Europe for cultivation, has a
tart, cherry-like drupe, which is edible raw or made into jelly. And the kousa
dogwood (C. kousa), introduced from Asia, has an aggregate fruit (like a
raspberry), which is also edible raw or made into jelly (Lincoff).
Medicinally, the berries may reduce the potency of some poisons when
ingested or applied as a poultice (Willard). Dogwoods contain varying
amounts of cornic acid and the alkaloid cornine, mostly in the bark and/or
the inner bark. It has a mildly narcotic and analgesic effect, especially help-
ful for individuals who have a negative reaction to salicylates like willow or
aspirin. The bark is also quite astringent, which further helps to draw down
inflamed tissues (Moore, Willard). The aromatic greenish inner bark of the
red osier dogwood (C. stolonifera) was often added to smoking mixtures. It
should be used in moderation due to its narcotic effect (Harrington, Willard).
Tupelo Subfamily—WN)yssoideae
The Tupelos are sometimes treated as a separate family, Nyssaceae.
Nyssa—tupelo (10/5/0) Native from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
124
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Dogwood > Family: Hydrangea
Patterns of the
Hydrangea Family _/
ovary with4 carpels (ey) a
, 4 or 5 petals SY \ $3
fF , 40r5 sepais ‘
numerous NN
ON¢ $9 Yo
as r Pe “
:
‘ . )
stamens
leaves
: Lewis' mock orange

bush anemone * Philadelphus lewisii
Carpenteria californica Hydrangea arborescens
Hydrangea Family—Hydrangeaceae
If you have a mock orange (Philadelphus) or Hydrangea in your yard, then you have met the Hydrangea fam-
ily. The family includes mostly shrubs with usually opposite leaves and showy flowers. The flowers are bisexual and
regular, with 4 or 5 (rarely 10) united sepals and 4 or 5 (rarely 10) separate petals. There are often numerous stamens
(but sometimes only 4, 5, or 8). The ovary is positioned either superior or inferior and consists of usually 4 (some-
times 2 to 5) united carpels, as usually indicated by the number of styles. Partition walls are present, forming an equal
number of chambers. The ovary matures as a capsule containing numerous seeds. Worldwide, there are 17 genera and
250 species. North American genera are listed below. Pride of Rochester (Deutzia) is an introduced ornamental.
Key Words: Shrubs with opposite leaves and showy flowers with parts in fours and fives.
Carpenteria—bush anenome (1/1/0) C. californica. Native to California.
Decumaria—woodvamp (2/1/0) D. barbara. Native to the eastern states.
Fendlera—fendlerbush (3/3/0) Native from Nevada to Texas.
Fendlerella—Utah fendlerbush (1/1/0) F utahensis. Native across the
Southwest.
Hydrangea—hydrangea (70/5/0) * Native and introduced species are
often cultivated in warm climates. The cluster of showy flowers are
sterile. The fertile flowers are smaller and shorter, appearing in the
middle of the group. The fresh leaves contain cyanide, but some spe-
cies are dried and powdered for use as a tea sweetener. Medicinally,
the roots are emetic and cathartic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and anthel-
mintic. The plant might contain an antimalarial alkaloid (Fern).
Ttea—sweet spire (8/1/0) 1. virginica. Grows from Texas to New Jersey.
Jamesia—cliffbush (2/2/0) Native to the southwest. The seeds were
sometimes eaten by Native Americans (Moerman).
Philadelphus—mock orange, syringa (71/29/1) * I love to bury my nose
in the sweet blossoms. The common name “syringa” is misleading,
since that is the botanical name of lilacs from the Olive family. The
fruits of at least one species were eaten by Native Americans. The
leaves and flowers contain saponin and were crushed in water for
use as soap (Moerman). Philadelphus and its allies are sometimes
segregated into their own family, Philadelphaceae. |
Whipplea—yerba de selva (1/1/0) W. modesta. Native to the Pacific
Coast states.
125
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Dogwood > Family: Loasa
Patterns of the Loasa Family Lindley's blazingstar

yellow fas ft numerous stamens Mentzelia lindleyi
stingbush
Eucnide
sn 7 5 petals—
bartonioides '-* ** (rarely 4 or 10)
5 sepals at:
inferior ovary
ovary
matures
asa
¥ capsule
with
tenpetal blazingsta i a numerous
Mentzelia decapetala ~® . seeds
Loasa Family—Loasaceae
Plants of the Loasa family typically have coarse vegetation with rough, hooked, or even stinging hairs. These
are mostly desert and tropical plants, but a few species can be found in arid environments throughout the Rocky
Mountains. The flowers are bisexual and regular and often 2 to 4 inches in diameter. There are typically 5 (rarely 4)
separate sepals and 5 (rarely 4 or 10) usually separate petals, and numerous stamens—as many as 200! The ovary is
positioned inferior and consists of 4 to 7 (rarely 3 or 8) united carpels forming a single chamber. The ovary matures
as a capsule with numerous seeds (only 1 seed in Petalonyx).
Worldwide, there are 15 genera and 250 species, mostly in South America and southern North America. Our
genera are listed below. In Mentzelia laevicaulis the outer ring of stamens can be flat, wide, and missing the anthers, so
they look like petals. In some specimens from southern California the sepals, petals, and styles even resemble leaves.
Key Words: Coarse, hairy plants of arid lands with 5 or 10 petals and numerous stamens.
Cevallia—stinging serpent (1/1/0) C. sinuata. Native from Arizona to Texas. The plant is covered with hairs, some of which
cause a stinging sensation.
Eucnide—stingbush (14/3/0) Native from California to Texas. The plant is covered with stinging hairs.
Mentzelia—blazing star (70/53/5) * The seeds can be parched or roasted and ground into a flour, for use as mush or bread -
(Olsen). Reportedly, they could be used to thicken gravy (Murphey).
Medicinally, a tea of the plant may be beneficial for hardened arteries if taken over a long period of time
(Bigfoot). The seeds were used in burn dressings by Native Americans. The leaves were used as an aid for toothache
(Moerman).
Petalonyx—Sandpaper Plant (4/4/0) The sandpaper plant is a native of the desert Southwest.
126
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Touch-Me-Not
gy Patterns of the
sa. |ouch-Me-Not
ay
Ss
irregular
jewelweed
flowers
Impatiens
capensis including
spur
: buzzy liz
(may look like 3) iigaliens!
2 are united walleriana
|
western touch-me-not }
ornamental jewelweed : :
Impatiens noli-tangere jj
Impatiens glandulifera
Touch-Me-Not Family—Balsaminaceae
Jewelweed (Impatiens) really stands out when you come across it. It has translucent, watery stems and a
distinctive irregular blossom. There are 3 (rarely 5) sepals of unequal size, the lowest one forming a spur. There are
5 petals, 2 of which are united, plus 5 stamens. The ovary is positioned superior. It consists of 5 united carpels with
the partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers. Each carpel produces 2 to numerous seeds. In
many species the ovary matures as a capsule that explodes when touched, hence the common name of the family.
The leaf has a silvery appearance when held underwater.
Worldwide, there are 2 genera and more than 850 species. Aydrocera triflora is native to southern India and
southern China. Everything else in the family has been classified or reclassified within /mpatiens. Buzzy lizzy (I. wal-
leriana) and several other species are cultivated as garden flowers and house plants. Be sure to look’for the spur on
the back. Some species of Impatiens have been used to produce red, yellow and black dyes.
Key Words: Delicate, juicy plants with irregular flowers and spurs.
Impatiens—jewelweed, touch-me-not (850/10/3) * Young jewelweed shoots up to 6 inches tall are reported to be a good
potherb. The seeds are also edible. Medicinally, jewelweed is astringent; 1t is often used as a poultice or wash for skin
irritations, especially for poison ivy, bee stings, and athlete’s foot. A European species also contains a bitter principle; it
is used as a laxative. Jewelweed is not common in Montana. I have only seen a half-dozen plants, and they are all gone
now. I think it prefers a more humid environment.
127
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Phlox
Patterns of the
Phlox Family
These are usually &

tubular flowers with
flattened faces.
ovary with
3 carpels
5 united petals
/ \arge-flowered trumpet
Collomia grandiflora
hairy phlox 5 stamens attached bird's-eye gilia
Phiox amoena to the petals Gilia tricolor
§
Phlox Family—Polemoniaceae
Most members of the Phlox family are small plants with narrow, alternate or opposite leaves. They are adapted
to arid environments, especially in the western states. A few species take the form of shrubs or trees in other parts
of the world. The delicate flowers are regular and bisexual, usually forming a tube at the base, which flattens out
to form a dish-like face. There are 5 united sepals, but they may appear mostly separate. There are 5 united petals,
usually twisted in the bud stage. There are 5 stamens attached to, and alternate with, the petals. (In a few species
there are 4 sepals, petals, and stamens.) The ovary is positioned superior. It consists of 3 (sometimes 2 or 5) united
carpels, as indicated by the number of styles. Partition walls are present, forming an equal number of chambers. The
ovary matures as a capsule with 1 to numerous seeds.
Worldwide, there are 18 genera and 320 species, mostly in the western hemisphere. Eleven genera are pres-
ent in North America, as listed below. Medicinally, many of these plants have seeds containing mucilage. The plants
also contain inulin polysaccharides, saponins and flavonoids (Zomlefer).
Key Words: Five united petals forming tubular flowers with a flat face. Usually narrow leaves.
Collomia—trumpet (14/11/4) * The seeds contain significant amounts of mucilage (Craighead).
Eriastrum—woollystar (15/15/0) Includes plants formerly classified as Hugelia.
Gilia—gilia (50/33/1) The herb and flowers sometimes have an acrid smell when crushed. Some species may contain
saponin (Craighead).
Ipomopsis—scarlet trumpet, scarlet gilia (25/25/5) * Some species were formerly classified as part of Gilia.
Langloisia—langloisia (1/1/0) L. setosissima. Grows in the Great Basin Desert.
Leptosiphon—babystars (28/28/1) Native to the western states.
Linanthus—linanthus (22/22/2) Many species from this genus are now classified as Leptosiphon.
Microsteris—slender phlox (1/1/1) * M. gracilis. Found from Alaska to Baja California, east to the Rocky Mountains.
Navarretia—pincushion plant (30/30/3) The seeds of NV. squarrosa are reported to be edible, typically parched and pulver-
ized. A tea of N. leucocephala was used on swellings (Sweet).
Phlox—phlox (67/67/11) * We have patches of P longifolia growing on our property, which florish in drought years. It
makes a spectacular carpet of white and pinkish flowers with dozens of blossoms on every little plant. It is a refreshing
reminder that drought is not the tragedy we often make it out to be, but part of the natural flow of things. Medicinally,
the boiled leaves are used as a drawing poultice (Murphey).
Polemonium—Jacob’s ladder (23/20/4)* Several species have a skunk-like odor when crushed. A tea of the herb has dia-
phoretic properties (Kadans).
128
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Pitcher Plant
Patterns of the Pitcher Plant Family

4or5
California pitcher plant Aa . 3Sbracts. sepals-S
% Darlingtonia californica 2)yl aie
A Kee_5 petals
pee ES —hodding flowers
NuMerous¢| (Gao
purple pitcherplant
Sarracenia purpurea
Tubular leaves hold

\ water to trap insects.
Pitcher Plant Family—Sarraceniaceae

Pitcher Plants have tubular, vase-like leaves that hold water to drown insects. As with other carnivorous
plants, Pitcher Plants typically live in acidic or nutrient poor soil and depend on insects as a nutritional supplement.
Brilliant colors and nectar help attract insects in some species, while downward pointing hairs and waxy secretions
help to hinder escape. Digestive enzymes and/or bacteria in the water break down the insects so that the plants can
absorb the nutrients, often giving the plants a putrid odor. The yellow pitcherplant
flowers often have 3 bracts, plus typically 4 or 5 sepals (sometimes Sarracenia flava
colored like petals) and 5 petals (rarely 0). There are numerous
stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 5 (rarely
3) united carpels forming an equal number of chambers. It matures
as a capsule containing numerous seeds.
Worldwide, there are 3 genera and 17 species, found only
in the New World. These plants are sometimes over-collected as
novelties. To better conserve the plants, do not harvest them in the
wild and buy only those plants that have been propagated from
cultivated stock.
Key Words: Plants with tubular leaves to trap insects.

Darlingtonia—cobra lily, California pitcher plant (1/1/0) D. Cali-
fornica. Native to northern California and southern Oregon.
Sarracenia—pitcher plant (9/9/0) The pitcher plants are native to
the East Coast of North America.
Heliamphora—matsh pitcher plant (6/0/0) Heliamphora is found
only in Venezuela and Guyana.
129
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Primrose
Primrose Family—Primulaceae
The Primroses are herbs or slightly woody plants with usually
basal or opposite leaves, but sometimes whorled. Some species are
aquatic, while many others will be found near the water or at least in
very moist soils. The flowers are regular and bisexual, often formed
in clusters above a bract (modified leaf) on the main stem. There
are usually 5 (rarely 4 to 9) sepals united at the base, and a similar
number of petals and stamens. The petals may be united (often at
the base) or separate and the stamens are aligned opposite (in the
middle of) the petals. The ovary is positioned superior or partly
a ‘ :0 inferior and consists of 5 united carpels forming a single chamber.

It matures as a capsule, often with a circumscissile lid (like a lid on
It a pot), containing 1 to numerous seeds.

Worldwide, there are about 28 genera and 800 species. North
American genera are listed below. The Cyclamen is a popular house-
plant that looks similar to our wild shooting stars (Dodecatheon).
The common names of this family can be the source of some
scarlet pimpernel confusion. The Primrose family is not related to the Evening Prim-
Anagallis arvensis rose family, nor is loosestrife (Lysimachia) related to the loosestrife
(Lythrum) of the Loosestrife family.
Key Words: Plants in moist soil with parts in fives and stamens aligned opposite the petals.
Anagallis—pimpernel (40/4/1) * A. arvensis was introduced from Europe. Some species of pimpernel are used in salads,
but otherwise the plants are diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, and purgative. Small doses cause sweating and increased
kidney activity. Larger doses act on the central nervous system and the brain, leading to trembling, watery stools, and
excessive urination (Lust). The plants contain some saponin; it is used for fishing in India (Schauenberg).
Androsace (including Douglasia)—rock jasmine (110/15/5) * A tea of the plant was taken for birth injuries and postpartum
bleeding, or taken cold for internal pain (Moerman). Dwarf primrose (A. montana, previously Douglasia montana),
grows abundantly on windswept ridges above my home. It blooms prolifically in May and June, yet individual blossoms
can be found during midwinter warm spells.
Dodecatheon—shooting star (15/15/3) * The whole plant is
edible as a salad green or potherb (Willard). Shooting stars
are mildly astringent. I like to pick the flowers and present
them to whomever I am with, then gobble them down!
Glaux—sea milkwort (1/1/1) G. maritima. The young shoots
and cooked roots are edible. The roots have a sedative
quality (Fern, Moerman).
Hottonia—featherfoil (2/1/0) H. inflata. An aquatic plant with
feathery leaves found from Texas to Maine.
Lysimachia (including Steironema)—loosestrife (200/16/1)
The cooked leaves are edible. Various species are largely
astringent with some diaphoretic and emetic properties.
The live plant is reported to repel gnats and flies; it can
also be burned as a smudge (Fern).
Primula—primrose (540/20/2) The flowers or young leaves
are edible and can often be found in winter. Some spe-
cies contain saponins and salicin. The saponins have an
expectorant effect, while the salicin is a pain reliever like
aspirin. (Fern).
Samolus—brookweed (7/4/0) Found in shallow water or moist
soils across much of North America.
Trientalis—starflower (3/3/0) * Sepals, petals, and stamens can
come in multiples of 5 to 9. Found across North America,
except the Rockies and Great Plains. shooting stars
Dodecatheon meadia
130
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Primrose
5 stamens,
positioned
St ay
“
. O
SR rs
[ae
_7— 5sepals
SHN
a
QA Y .104 \QY 2
united at the ie \ \i WV
ons ~— 5 petals Gs 4
é “ate united at the base
(sometimes separate)
Flowers often in clusters

above a bract (modified leaf). |
Leaves are usually
Henderson's
Patterns of the shooting star
fas Dodecatheon
Primrose Family hendersonii
Ovary matures as a
fringed loosestrife circumscissile capsule~
Lysimachia ciliata (lidded like a pot) in
(Steironema ciliatum) some species.
yellow loosestrife
Lysimachia vulgaris
pygmyflower rockjasmine
Androsace septentrionalis
Rusby's primrose
Primula rusbyi
EOL
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Heath > Family: Heath
Flower parts usually in 5s, but

sometimes in 4s. Patterns of the
Heath Family
usually 2x as many stamens

_- 8as petapetals
ls ((sometimes 1x ) / He,
leatherleaf
Chamaedaphne
ie ‘, “\ calyculata
usually 5 united petals >
. s
often urn- or bell-shaped 2
\ he ,)
f
usually 5 sepals ~
—~ united at the base Py 2
Yat
i
(4
usually
sheep laurel ~~
evergreen
Kalmia angustifolia leaves
Ovary matures as a capsule

or sometimes as a berry or drupe. blue mountain heath
Phyllodoce caerulea
Heath Family—Ericaceae
The Heath family is as exciting to know as blueberries and huckleber-
ties (Vaccinium). This family includes mostly shrubs (some herbs and trees)
with usually alternate, often evergreen leaves. The plants typically grow in poor,
acidic soils or bogs. The bisexual and regular or nearly regular flowers typically
have 5 sepals united at the base and 5 usually united petals (sometimes 4 of each
or rarely more or less), often in a bell shape and white to pink or red in color.
Expect to find the same number or twice as many stamens as petals. The ovary
is positioned either superior or inferior and consists of usually 5 (sometimes 4,
and rarely more or less) united carpels with the partition walls present, forming
an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule, a berry, or rarely as a
drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony pit).
Worldwide there are about 126 genera and 4,000 species. Taxonomists
have expanded the family to include the Pyrola and Indian Pipe families as
subfamilies of the Heath family. For clarity of identification, these subfamilies
retain separate descriptions in the text that follows. In addition, the Crowberry
family has been folded into this family as a tribe of the Heath subfamily.
Key Words: Mostly red, pink, or white bell-shaped flowers

with flower parts in fives. Leaves often evergreen.
White Heather Subfamily—Cassiopoideae

Leaves are small and needlelike. Flowers are urn- or bell-shaped.
white mountain heather Casstope—white heather (12/3/2) Found from California to Alaska, inland to Montana.
White
Heather
Subfamily Cassiope tetragona Formerly included in the Heath subfamily.
1p?
Heath Subfamily—Ericoideae black crowberry

Taxonomists expanded the Heath subfamily to include the former Empetrum nigrum
Rhododendron subfamily, as well as the entire Crowberry family (formerly

Empetraceae). The resulting mishmash is less intuitive than previous classifica-
tion systems. Genera are grouped into tribes below to clarify relationships.
Crowberry Tribe—Empetreae
The leaves are small and needlelike. Urn-shaped flowers with parts
in 3s. The ovary is positioned superior and matures as a drupe or berry. The
tribe was previously considered a family unto itself, Empetraceae.
Ceratiola—sand heath (1/1/0) C. ericoides. From Mississippi to South Carolina.
©
flower
Corema—broom crowberry (2/1/0) C. conradii. The fruit is edible (Fern).
parts in 3s
Empetrum—crowberry (4/2/0) Native across Canada and the Pacific Coast
states. The fruit is edible.
Heath Tribe—FEriceae
. Leaves are small and needlelike, and the plants do not have leaf buds
present in winter. Fruit is a capsule.
Calluna—heather (1/1/0) C. vulgaris. Introduced to northern states. #@ Heath Family
Erica—heath (860/3/0) Introduced. Heath Subfamily
Mountain Heath Tribe—Phyllodoceae
Flowers vary from urn-shaped to parachute-like, or nearly separate
petals. Fruit is a capsule.
Bejaria—flyweed (15/1/0) B. racemosa. Native from Alabama to South Carolina.
Insects get trapped in sticky secretions on the flowers.
Elliottia—copper bush (4/2/0) Native from Alaska to Oregon, plus Georgia
and South Carolina.
Epigaea—trailing arbutus (3/1/0) E. repens. Native from Manitoba to Missis-
sippi, east to the Atlantic.
Kalmia (including Leiophyllum and Loiseleuria)—laurel (6/2/1) The common
name could be confused with laurel (Laurus) of the Laurel family. Kalmia
contains andromedotoxin (Craighead), used in small doses as a sedative and
for neuralgia. A tea of the leaves has been used to commit suicide (Lust).
Kalmiopsis—kalmiopsis (2/2/0) Native to Oregon. copperbush
} Elfiottia pyrolifiora
Phyllodoce—mountain heath (5/5/2) * Western mountains and Canada.
Rhododendron Tribe—Rhodoreae
Leaf buds are present in winter. The ovary is positioned superior
and matures as a capsule. The seeds are usually winged. Some species con-
tain andromedotoxins. Genetic evidence suggests that Ledum and Menziesia
should be included within Rhododendron.
Ledum—Labrador tea (5/3/1) ¢ Labrador tea contains the volatile oil ledol or
ledum, a mildly narcotic substance with the potential to cause abortions,
heart palpitations, drowsiness or temporary paralysis if used in “excess.
However, the substance is not readily soluble in water and the plant has a
long history of use as an aromatic, mildly bitter tea, drunk either hot or
cold (Moore). Medicinally, the tea is antispasmodic, diuretic, diaphoretic
and expectorant (Lust).
Menziesia—false huckleberry (2/2/1) * Vegetation resembles true huckleberries. smooth azalea
Rhododendron
The fruits (capsules) are edible (Fern).
arborescens
Rhododendron—azalea, rhododendron (1,000/30/1) * The flowers can be made
into jelly, but may have an intoxicating effect (Sturtevant). Rhododendrons Weare
cross-section
contain andromedotoxin, like that found in Kalmia. Usage can lead to
of seed capsule
paralysis and heart failure (Klein). Some species are highly toxic to horses.
le)
Blueberry Subfamily— Vaccinioideae

Members of the Blueberry subfamily typically have
leaf buds that can be seen in winter. Flower petals are united
into an urn- or bell-shape. The ovary is positioned inferior
in berry-producing genera, but superior in genera that form:
seed capsules. Genera are grouped into tribes below to clarify
relationships.
Blueberry Tribe—Vaccinieae
Gaylussacia—huckleberry (50/8/0) Native from Ontario to Loui-
siana, east to the Atlantic, The fruit is edible.
Vaccinium—blueberry, huckleberry, cranberry, bilberry, lignonberry
(200/40/8) * The berries are edible and delicious. I love to
gorge on the berries until the fruit acids make my gums and
teeth sore, but even that doesn't stop me! The vegetation and
berries are rich in flavonoids, which are consumed for their
antioxidant effects. The berries benefit night vision by increas-
ing the number ofpurple receptor rods in the or (Klein). See
; also Foraging the Mountain West.
Gaultheria
shallon | B): Salal Tribe—Gaultherieae
Chamaedaphne—leatherleaf (1/1/0) C. calyculata. Fruit is a capsule.
Native across Canada and from Minnesota to Georgia.
Gaultheria—salal, wintergreen (150/6/2) * The berries are edible
. and tasty. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West. The
leaves contain the phenolic glycoside, methyl salicylate, and
like willow, it can be used as aspirin (Brown, Hall, Lust). G.
procumbens, from the eastern U.S., was the original source of
wintergreen oil, a volatile oil and spice later extracted from the
twigs of black birch and finally produced synthetically (Hall).
Other species may have similar properties (Harrington).
Andromeda Tribe—Andromedeae
Andromeda—andromeda, bog rosemary (1/1/0) A. polifolia. Fruit is a capsule. Native to Canada and the northeastern states.
The plant contains an andromedotoxin, which lowers blood pressure and can cause respiratory problems, dizziness,
vomiting, or diarrhea.
Sourwood Tribe—Oxydendreae
Oxydendrum—sourwood (1/1/0) O. arboreum. Fruit is a capsule. Native from Louisiana to New York.
Staggerbush Tribe—Lyonieae
Lyonia—staggerbush (30/5/0) Fruit is a capsule. Native from Texas to Maine.
Pieris—fetterbush (5/2/0) Fruit is a capsule. Native from Mississippi to Virginia.
Madrone Subfamily—Arbutoideae
Plants of the Madrone subfamily were formerly included within the Blueberry subfamily. The fruit is usually
a berry, soft and mushy in Arbutus, but dry, mealy, and usually astringent in other genera.
Arbutus—madrone (20/4/0) Native from British Columbia to Texas. The big berries are edible, but hardly exciting. Me-
dicinally, the plant contains simple phenol glycosides and tannic acid similar to Arctostaphylos (Moore).
Arctostaphylos—kinnikinnick, bearberry, manzanita (78/78/3) * The mealy berries are edible. The plants are rich in the
astringent tannic and gallic acids and the simple phenol glycosides, arbutin and ericolin (Schauenberg). In the presence
of bacteria and alkaline urine, the phenols are hydrolized in the bladder into the disinfectant hydroquinone, useful for
urinary tract ulcerations and inflammation and as a solvent for calcium stones in the urinary tract. (Read about Glycosides
in the Medicinal Properties section for more information.) In cases of acid urine, sodium bicarbonate must be taken
with the herbs to activate the reaction. (Also read about Tannic Acid in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.)
Comarostaphylis—summer holly (10/1/0) C. diversifolia. Native to California. Fruit is a drupe.
Ornithostaphylos—Baja birdbush (1/1/0) O. oppositifolia. Native to Baja California. Fruit is a drupe.
Xylococcus—mission manzanita (1/1/0) X. bicolor. Native to coastal California.
134
dwarf bilberry
Vaccinium
cespitosum
dwarf huckleberry
Gaylussacia dumosa
: WZ
RY, tt )
1Ac Sl
whiteleaf manzanita
Arctostaphylos manzanita
Heath Family
Blueberry & Madrone
oval-leaf
blueberry Subfamilies
Vaccinium ntergreen
ovalifolium Gaultheria
procumbens
_ kinnikinnick
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Pacific madrone
Arbutus menziesii
ip
ovary usually ovary matures

with 5 carpels — as a capsule
[
2x as many stamens as petals
usually 5 separate petals~
usually 5 separate sepals~

(or united at the base)
Heath Family
Pyrola Subfamily
usually evergreen leaves a,
q~
striped prince's pine one-flowered : wintergreen round-leaf wintergreen }
Chimaphila maculata Moneses uniflora Pyrola rotundifolia \\
Pyrola Subfamily—Pyroloideae
The Pyrolas are forest dwellers. They thrive in the shade of others. These plants have evergreen leaves and
slightly woody stems. The waxy-looking flowers are bisexual with 5 (sometimes 4) separate sepals (sometimes united
at the base) and 5 (sometimes 4) separate petals. There are twice as many stamens as petals. The ovary is positioned
superior and consists of 5 (sometimes 4) carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of cham-
bers. It matures as a round capsule with numerous seeds. The Pyrola subfamily has at times been classified as its own
family, Pyrolaceae.
Key Words: Evergreen forest plants with waxy-looking flowers and parts in fives.
Chimaphila—pipsissewa, prince’s pine (4/3/2) * The leaves have a mild wintergreen flavor and can be eaten as a trail
nibble, brewed into a tea, or used to flavor homemade root beer. In some places pipsissewa has been overharvested as
an ingredient for soft drinks. Medicinally, a tea of the leaves is astringent, diuretic, and diaphoretic, useful internally
and externally (Lust).
Moneses—one-flowered wintergreen (1/1/1) M. uniflora. Native to the mountains and northern latitudes of North America.
Orthilia—sidebells wintergreen (3/1/1) O. secunda. Native to the mountains and northern latitudes of North America.
Pyrola—wintergreen, pyrola (40/7/5) * Pyrola contains tannic acid and simple phenol glycosides, especially useful as a
diuretic for the kidneys and urinary tract infections (Schauenberg), and helpful for sore throats. Externally, the plant
is used to stop bleeding and to heal bruises and insect bites. Its antispasmodic properties make the plant useful for
nervous disorders, such as epilepsy. The chewed roots were used as throat lozenges (Willard).
136
These saprophytic plants feed on dead and

Heath Family » decaying organic matter in the soil and have
Indian Pipe Subfamily ae
re
% no cholorophyll for photosynthesis. They are
. often white, yellow, brownish, or red. Leaves xy
\ are alternate and often reduced to scales. A yy
ui
m@
snowplant
© Sarcodes
Sw sanguinea
usually 5
separate pepals ae
usually 5
united petals
2x as many
stamens as petals
ovary with
5 carpels gu
Indian pipe
Monotropa unifiora
pinesap
pinedrops | Monotropa
Pterospora \% hypopithys
andromedea W
Indian Pipe Subfamily—Monotropoideae

Have you ever found’a plant that isn’t green? Plants of the Indian Pipe subfamily are saprophytes, meaning
that they have no chlorophyll and they feed on dead organic matter in the soil. They are often white, yellow, brown-
ish, or even candy-striped red and white. Flowers are regular and bisexual with usually 5 (sometimes 2 to 6) separate
sepals, 5 (sometimes 3 to 6) separate or united petals, and usually twice as many stamens as petals. The ovary is posi-
tioned superior and consists of usually 5 (sometimes 4 or 6) united carpels forming an equal number of chambers. It
matures as a capsule. The Indian Pipe subfamily has at times been classified as its own family, Monotropaceae. Be sure
to read about other plants lacking chlorophyll in the Broomrape and Orchid families, plus Cuscuta in the Morning
Glory family.
Key Words: Saprophytic plants with regular flowers.
Allotropa—candystick (1/1/1) A. virgata. Native to the Pacific Coast states, inland to Montana.
Hemitomes—coneplant (1/1/0) H. congestum. Native from California to British Columbia.
Monotropa—Indian pipe, pinesap (3/2/2) ° A tea of the root is antispasmodic, nervine, and sedative (Lust), suggesting the
possible presence of alkaloids.
Monotropsis—pigmy pipes, sweet pinesap (2/1/0) M. odorata. Native to sandy pine forests of the southeastern states.
Pityopus—pinefoot (1/1/0) P californica. Native from California to Washington.
Pleuricospora—fringed pinesap (1/1/0) P fimbriolata. Native to deep woods from California to British Columbia.
Pterospora—pinedrops (1/1/1) * P andromedea. The Cheyenne used a tea of the stems and berries to prevent bleeding from
the nose and lungs (Vogel).
Sarcodes—snow plant (1/1/0) S. sanguinea. Native to the mountains California, Oregon, and Nevada.
13/
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Gentian > Family: Madder
Patterns of the Madder Family

Sepals, petals, and stamens are mostly in 4s,
but also frequently in 5s.
— 4 united petals
(often pointed)
)—~4 stamens
—whorled leaves arising from
the petals
inferior ovary
with 2 carpels
bedstraw
Galium aparine
ME calon
partridgeberry common buttonbush

Mitchella repens Cephalanthus occidentalis
Madder Family— Rubiaceae

If you are a coffee drinker, then the Madder family could be a real eye-opener. Coffee beans (Coffea) contain
caffeine, a purine-type alkaloid that stimulates production of hormones, including adrenaline. Botanically, plants of
the madder family have simple, usually opposite, or sometimes whorled leaves. An outgrowth called a stipule is often
found along the stem between each set of leaves. Flowers are regular and bisexual with 4 or 5 (sometimes 0) separate
or united sepals, 4 or 5 united petals (often pointed), and 4 or 5 stamens. The ovary is positioned inferior (rarely
superior) and consists of 2 (sometimes 4) united carpels with partition walls present, forming an equal number of
chambers. The ovary matures as a capsule or berry with numerous seeds in most species, but as a 2-seeded fruit in
Galium that looks like fuzzy, green testicles.
The Madder family is large, consisting of about 600 genera and 13,000 species of mostly trees and shrubs
in tropical climates. About 20 genera, mostly herbs, are native to North America, primarily in Florida. Genera listed
below are widespread, especially bedstraw (Galium).
Key Words: Opposite or whorled leaves, with 4 (or 5) united petals, and an ovary with 2 carpels.
Cephalanthus—button bush (10/2/0) Native to moist habitats from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
Galium—bedstraw, cleavers (300/78/6) * Squarish stems. G. aparine is a fun plant to play with. The vines are covered with
Velcro-like stickers that cling to the clothing of whomever you throw them at! The common name “bedstraw” comes
from the practice of filling mattresses with the plants. Apparently the plants do not pack down flat, but retain some loft.
The young shoots are edible as a salad green or potherb (Hall), but hairy species may irritate the throat. A
tea of the plant is recommended for dissolving calcium stones and as a general diuretic, astringent (Willard), anti-
inflammatory, and lymphatic tonic. Pure bedstraw juice is considered very beneficial for stomach ulcers (Tilford).
Bedstraw is also useful for modest healing without irritation in cases of hepatitis (Moore). The roots of some species
yield a bright red dye (Willard). Sweet-scented bedstraw (G. odoratum) contains high levels of coumarins (Duke).
Houstonia—bluets (38/18/0) Various species of bluets grow from the East Coast to the Midwest and across the southern states.
Mitchella—partridge berry (3/1/0) M. repens. Native from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic. Twin flowers are joined
at the ovaries, producing a single berry. The berry is edible, but nearly tasteless. The plant is used medicinally to tone
the prostate and womb (Cook).
138
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Gentian > Family: Gentian
)
Patterns of the Gentian Family wr , charming

venustum
4-5 stamens /
— 4-5 united petals—
4-5 sepals ——
— Ovary matures as a Catesby's gentian

i capsule with many Gentiana catesbaei
, re
opposite leaves
pleated gentian
Gentiana affinis
felwort
Swertia
perennis
Gentian Family—Gentianaceae
Gentians are as beautiful as they are bitter. The plants have mostly opposite leaves, but species of Frasera
have leaves in whorls of three or four. The flowers are mostly bisexual and regular and often twisted in the bud stage.
There are usually 5 (sometimes 4) separate sepals, 5 (sometimes 4) united petals, and a similar number of stamens,
which are attached to the petals and alternate with the lobes. The ovary is positioned superior. It consists of 2 united
carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule with many seeds.
Worldwide, there are 87 genera and 1,500 species. Thirteen genera are native to North America, including
Bartonia, Eustoma, Obolaria, Nymphoides, Sabbatia and the genera listed below. Most members of the Gentian family
contain potent bitter principles that stimulate the digestive system. Read more in the Medicinal Properties section of
this book.
Key Words: Plants with opposite leaves and tubular flowers with parts in 4s or 5s.
Centaurium—centaury (40/15/1) The plant stimulates digestion, benefiting
the liver and kidneys; also used as a diaphoretic (Hutchins).
Frasera—deer’s tongue (15/13/2) * The plant is mildly bitter, while the raw
root is emetic and cathartic. The dried, powdered root is used as a bitter,
but large doses can be fatal (Fern). The seeds are very bitter.
Gentiana—gentian (200/56/7) * Gentian roots contain some of the most
bitter compounds known in the plant world, previously used in beer-
making and medicines (Fern). The root or chopped herb is steeped for
use as a bitter tonic for indigestion and as an appetite stimulant (Moore).
Gentian is used as a blood-builder to increase the number of white blood
cells (Lust). It is also used to expel worms (Bigfoot). Excess consumption
can lead to nausea, vomiting or diarrhea.
Gentianella—dwarf gentian (275/10/5) Similar to the true gentians (Gentiana).
Halenia—spurted gentian (47/2/1) Native to northern states and provinces
and the southern Rocky Mountains.
Lomatogonium—marsh felwort (18/1/1) L. rotatum. Native from Alaska to
Maine and south through the Rocky Mountains.
Swertia—felwort (100/15/1) S. perennis. The powdered, dried root is steeped
for a bitter tonic; it is stronger than Gentiana, potentially laxative or
I soapwort gentian
cathartic. The root can be used as a fungicide for ringworm, athlete's | Gentiana saponana
foot, also for lice and scabies (Moore). The leaves may be toxic (Bigfoot).
139
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Gentian > Family: Dogbane
ee
5 united petals
5 united sepals
\\ —The ovary consists of two” ¢ Hf

=~
M mostly separate carpels, |

H which may be joined at
the tips in the floral stage.
Each carpel matures into
f a separate follicle— a dry
fruit that opens by a seam
on one side.
bigleaf periwinkle
Vinca major
Patterns
of the
Dogbane
spreading dogbane / Family
Apocynum androsaemifolium
Dogbane Family—Apocynaceae
The herbs, shrubs, and trees of the Dogbane family have opposite leaves (rarely alternate) and a milky, latex
sap. Most are poisonous to some degree. The flowers are bisexual and regular, with 5 united sepals, 5 united petals,
and 5 stamens. Stamens attach at the base of the petals, alternate with the lobes. The ovary is positioned wholly or
mostly superior. It consists of 2 carpels, usually separate in North American genera, united only at the styles. Each
carpel matures as a separate follicle, a dry, pod-like fruit with a seam down one side. There are many seeds, often
with a tuft of hair attached at one end. Some genera produce berries or capsules.
The traditional family included about 200 genera and 2,000 species, including 11 genera in North America,
mostly in Florida. Periwinkle (Vinca) is often used in landscaping. The oleander (Nerium oleander) is grown as an
ornamental (and toxic) shrub in warmer parts of our country. Oleander contains cardiac glycosides (Geller). Chil-
dren have died after roasting hot dogs on the sticks. Taxonomists have reclassified the former Milkweed family as a
subfamily of the Dogbanes, greatly expanding the size of the family.
Key Words: Plants with opposite leaves and milky juice. Tubular flowers with parts in 5s.
Amsonia—blue star (18/18/0) Native to the southern states, often cultivated.
Apocynum—dogbane (7/6/3) * The bark contains durable fibers that can be spun into cordage. Common dogbane (A. can-
nabinum) is tallest and best to work with. (Learn how in Participating in Nature.) Common dogbane is more potent
than other species and should not be used medicinally (Moore). The root of A. androsaemifolium is used internally as
a vasoconstrictor. It raises blood pressure and slows, but strengthens, the heart rate. It is a potent diuretic, an irritating
stimulant to the kidneys. Externally the root can be used as an irritating poultice to stimulate blood flow (vasodilator)
and speed healing, or as a rinse to irritate the scalp and stimulate hair growth (Moore). Dogbane contains resins, a
volatile oil, a bitter substance (Densmore) and cardiac glycosides (Phillips). It should not be used internally by amateurs.
Haplophyton—cockroach plant (1/1/0) H. crooksii. The milky sap or dried leaves are mixed with molasses as a poison for
cockroaches, flies, and lice, and as a lotion to repel mosquitoes and fleas.
Mandevilla (Macrosiphonia)—tock trumpet (4/4/0) Native from Arizona to Texas.
Trachelospermum—climbing dogbane (11/2/0) Grows from Texas to Virginia.
Vinca—periwinkle (5/2/1) * Vinca and Catharanthus are closely related and both called periwinkle. They are often cultivated,
but escape into the wild. Vinca is used medicinally as an internal astringent for excess menstruation, hemorrhoids,
bleeding ulcers and diarrhea (Willard). As a capillary constrictor it may be useful for migraine headaches (Tilford). The
dried leaves have been smoked as a hallucinogen, but with serious side effects. It causes an immediate reduction in the
white blood cell count and makes the hair fall out (Emboden). Vinblastine and vincristine are two indole alkaloids
derived from a species of periwinkle that are used in the treatment of blood and lymph cancers.
140
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Gentian > Family: Dogbane
Dogbane Family / Milkweed Subfamily

butterfly milkweed
Asclepias tuberosa Vegey \. The corona consists of
___—5 hoods with
=» beaks:
pie ar
(seed pod)
common milkweed pod”

Asclepias syniaca
incarnata &
Milkweed Subfamily—Asclepiadoideae ,
Milkweeds are perennial herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees, usually with acrid, milky juice and opposite or sometimes
whorled leaves. The flowers are bisexual and regular, typically grouped in clusters. There are 5 separate sepals and 5
united petals, plus in some species a corona that looks like an extra set of petals. The corona consists of 5 hood-like
forms facing towards the center of the flower. Inside the corona there are 5 stamens fused to the ovary. The ovary. is
positioned superior. It consists of 2 mostly-separate carpels. Each carpel, or often only one by abortion, matures as a
separate follicle, a pod-like dry fruit with a seam down one side. The pods are filled with numerous seeds with silky
tufts. Traditionally, the Milkweeds were classified as an independent family, Asclepiadaceae, but taxonomists now
believe the Milkweeds arose from within the Dogbane family. Worldwide, there are 250 genera and 2,000 species,
mostly native to the tropics. The waxplant (Hoya) is a common houseplant from this subfamily. There are 5 genera
in North America, including Cynanchum, Gonolobus, Matelea, and Sarcostemma.
Key Words: Plants with opposite leaves, milky juice, and big pods. Irregular, crown-like flowers.
_ Asclepias—milkweed (140/77/5) * The young stalks of the common milkweed (A. syriaca) and showy milkweed (A. speciosa)
can be cooked much like asparagus: put the stalks in a pan of water and simmer for fifteen or twenty minutes, then
drain off the water. Coincidentally, the taste is similar to asparagus, too. Do not eat the milkweed if it is bitter. It may
be the wrong species, a different variety, or possibly dogbane.
It was once believed that milkweed was poisonous raw and needed to be placed in several changes of boiling
water to remove its poisonous properties. With a reputation like that, many foragers like myself never bothered to
mess with it at all. But fortunately, Sam Thayer, author of The Forager’s Harvest, experimented with milkweed enough
to find that it wasn’t bitter and didn’t require any special preparation. This widespread disbelief may have started when
one forager mistook dogbane for milkweed and tried to remove its bitterness through repeated boiling. The mistake
was then copied and pasted into nearly every foraging book since, without anyone testing the original assumption
(Thayer). The blossoms are high in sugar and can be boiled down to make a syrup (Willard).
Medicinally, at least some milkweeds have a bitter latex sap that can be used to irritate and stimulate the body.
The boiled root dilates the bronchioles, stimulating lymph drainage from the lungs for lung infections. It is used as a
menstrual stimulant, lactose stimulant, laxative, bitter diuretic, diaphoretic and expectorant. The root powder can be.
snuffed to promote sneezing to clear the sinuses. Some species may produce nausea (Moore). Long-term consumption
may lead to depression or death (Willard). The latex sap can be applied repeatedly to remove a wart (Hutchins). A
boiled tea of the herb applied to the eyes may have some effect on blindness (Hart).
Butterfly weed (A. tuberosa) is diaphoretic, carminative, expectorant, and diuretic. A tea of the dried or cooked
root is used for colds, flu, and bronchitis. The raw root may be poisonous (Lust).
Milkweed, particularly A. speciosa, is an excellent fiber plant like its cousin the dogbane. It produces beautiful,
silky, white cordage. This species can frequently be found growing in semi-moist ditches along the highways.
141
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Borage > Family: Borage
Borage Family—Boraginaceae
If you have ever found flat, teardrop-shaped burrs stuck on your clothes, then you have met one member of
the Borage family, known as beggarstick or houndstongue (Cynoglossum). Plants of this family are often rough and
hairy, usually with simple, alternate leaves. The flower spikes often curl like a scorpion’s tail, with flowers blooming
on the upper surface. Individual flowers are bisexual and mostly regular. They have 5 separate sepals and 5 united |
petals. There are 5 stamens, which are attached to the corolla tube, alternate with the petals. The ovary is positioned
superior. It consists of 2 united carpels, but false partitions may make the ovary appear 4-chambered. It typically
matures as 4 separate nutlets or sometimes achenes (dry seeds). Some genera produce fewer than 4 nutlets due to
abortion. You may be able to see the aborted nutlets around the developing ones.
Worldwide, the traditional Borage family included approximately 100 genera and about 2,000 species, in-
cluding about 22 genera in North America. Taxonomists have expanded the family to include the previously separate
Waterleaf family as a subfamily, which retains its own description on the following page. Hairs on the vegetation
may irritate the skin and cause dermatitis on some individuals. Medicinally, these plants are mildly astringent, good
internally as tea or externally as a poultice for any wounds or excretions that need an astringent to tighten up tissues.
Some species are mildly mucilaginous, useful for their emollient properties. However, many species contain minute
amounts of poisonous alkaloids and may be toxic with sustained use.
Key Words: Hairy plants with flower parts in fives. Four nutlets.
Amsinckia—fiddleneck (20/14/2) The seeds are reported to be edible when ground on a metate and used as flour (Olsen).
The protective hairs may irritate the skin. The seeds may be poisonous to cattle (Kinucan).
Anchusa—Alkanet (35/3/3) Introduced. The leaves of at least some species are edible as a salad green (Sturtevant). A. offici-
nale contains alkaloids, tannin and mucilage, used internally as an expectorant, “blood purifier,” and to stop diarrhea.
(Schauenberg).
Asperugo—catchweed, German madwort (1/1/1) * A. procumbens. Introduced from Europe.
Borago—borage (3/1/1) * B. officinale. This is a European herb often cultivated in the U.S. The very young leaves can
be used in salads or as potherbs. The plants have mucilaginous, astringent, diuretic and diaphoretic properties. It is
used to reduce fevers, stimulate milk production and calm nerves. As with other members of this family, long-term
consumption is not recommended.
Cryptantha—miner’s candle (150/113/13) * Native to western North America.
Cynoglossum—houndstongue, beggarstick (68/6/1) * No doubt you have pulled the flat, tear-drop-shaped seeds of this plant
from your socks or woolens. C. officinale is a European weed that is now widespread across this country. Medicinally,
hound’s tongue contains allantoin (Tilford). The plant or root is principally astringent and demulcent, useful externally
as a poultice for burns, internally for sore throat or diarrhea (Hutchins). Hound’s tongue is similar to comfrey (Moore)
and includes similar, potentially carcinogenic alkaloids (Tilford). One alkaloid, cynoglossine, is toxic to cold-blood
animals, but has little effect on mammals (Schauenberg); it may be useful as a fish poison.
Eritrichium—alpine forget-me-not (25/3/2) * Native to the mountain West.:
Hackelia—stickseed forget-me-not (40/25/5) °
Heliotropium—heliotrope (220/23/1) A tea of the plant was reportedly taken as an emetic (Murphey). A European species
contains a poisonous alkaloid (Pammel).
Lithospermum—stoneseed, gromwell (50/18/3) * Native Americans reportedly ate the root of L. incisum (Craighead), and
L. linearifolium (A. Brown). However, some species of gromwell contain toxic alkaloids and estrogen-like compounds
that interfere with hormonal balances in the female reproductive system (Tilford). Some species were used by Native
American women as a female contraceptive. Extended use may cause sterility (Vogel).
Mertensia—bluebell (40/23/8) * On camping trips, I often do my cooking in an old tin miner's gold pan. Some species of .
bluebells have wide leaves that serve well as a lid on my pan for steaming foods. I eat bluebell leaves in limited quanti-
ties. They seem mildly astringent and mucilaginous.
Myosotis—forget-me-not (80/10/3) * Native and introduced species are found across North America.
Symphytum—comfrey (17/4/1) * Comfrey is often planted domestically for its herbal properties. The root and leaves are
astringent, mucilaginous and contain allantoin, useful externally on cuts and burns, and internally as an expectorant
and demulcent. The astringency makes comfrey useful for stopping bleeding and healing ulcers, while the mucilage
soothes the irritated tissues. Comfrey contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are toxic to the liver tissues. Toxicity is
variable from species to species. People have died from chronic use of this herb (Tyler), but many herbalists consider
it safe in moderation.
142
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Borage > Family: Borage
common
viper's bugloss
Echium vulgare
Patterns
of the A
hoary
stoneseed
dellivsts a > : battesoons

Lithospermum
houndstongue 5 united petals with“

Cynoglossum stamens attached
officinale |
4 nutlets
(or less by
abortion)
Italian bugloss borage

Anchusa azurea Borago officinalis Menzies’ fiddleneck
Amsinckia menziesii
143
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Borage > Family: Waterleaf
Borage Family pistil with

Waterleaf Subfamily 2- parted stigma
5 stamens
attached to petals
cj 4 i ¥
NY < Re vg ‘
( MCs) Q 5 united petals

+S v7 a 5 separate
Pp or
Ss" united “ners
Ovary is positioned superior
and matures as a capsule ~ ¥
with numerous seeds,
Flowerheads often
curl over like a
wag, scorpion tail.
largefiower N a Virginia
baby blue eyes Ph = waterleaf
Nemophila divaricate phacelia Hydrophylium
phacelioides Phacelia divaricata Virginianum
Waterleaf Subfamily—Hydrophylloideae
More than other members of the Borage family, the Waterleafs are typically hairy and the flower spikes often
curl over like a scorpion tail. These are usually small plants. The flowers are regular and bisexual with 5 separate or
united sepals, 5 united petals, and 5 stamens attached to the base of the petals. The stamens typically dangle beyond
the petals, giving the flowers a dainty appearance. The ovary is positioned superior. It consists of 2 (rarely 4) united
carpels, usually forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule with a variable number of seeds. The Waterleafs
were formerly considered an independent family, Hydrophyllaceae, but taxonomists now classify them as a subfamily
of the Borage family. Worldwide, there are 20 genera and 270 species. North American genera are listed blow. Note
that some common names overlap between the Waterleafs and the Borages.
Key Words: Small, hairy plants with parts in fives, united.

Draperia—draperia (1/1/0) D. systyla. Native to the mountains of northern California.
Ellista—Aunt Lucy (1/1/0) E. nyctelea. Native across much of North America.
Emmenanthe—whispering bells (1/1/0) E. penduliflora. Native to the desert southwest.
Eriodictyon—mountain balm, yerba santa (9/8/0) The plant centains resins and phenols; it is smoked or made into tea for
use as an expectorant and bronchial dilator. It is used for mild urinary tract infections (Moore).
Eucrypta—hideseed (2/2/0) Native to the desert southwest.
Hesperochiron—hesperochiron (2/2/2) Native from the Rocky Mountains west to the Pacific.
Hydrophyllum—waterleaf (9/9/1) * The leaves and shoots are edible in a salad. The roots are edible cooked (Kirk).
' Nama (including Lemmonia)—fiddleleaf (21/21/0) Native from the Pacific Coast east to Montana and Louisiana.
Nemophila—baby blue eyes (11/11/1) * Native to the West and South.
Phacelia—phacelia, scorpionweed, heliotrope (140/130/8) * P racemosissima was reportedly used by Native Americans as
a potherb (Kinucan). The flowers of some species have a unique smell that is sweet to some people and very offensive
to others. The name heliotrope is also used in the borage family.
Pholistoma—fiestaflower (3/3/0) Native to the Southwest.
Romanzoffia—mist maiden (5/5/1) Native from Alaska to California and Montana.
Tricardia—threchearts (1/1/0) T. watsonii. Native to the Southwest.
Turricula—poodle-dog bush (1/1/1) 7: parryi. Native to the mountains of southern California. The vegetation can cause
severe irritation, dermatitis, and blisters when touched.
144
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Nightshade > Family: Morning Glory
Patterns of the Morning Glory Family
star-like creases~ ¢
in blossom
5 united petals’ Y
make a funnelform tN
flower xe
J Sseparate— }
sepals
bracts
field bindweed
Convolvulus
arvensis
man ofthe earth hedge false bindweed
[pomoea pandurata Calystegia sepium
Morning Glory Family—Convolvulaceae

Morning Glories get noticed. You may have some in your yard or neighborhood already. These are often
vining plants with alternate leaves and funnel-like flowers with a star-like pattern of creases embossed in the petals.
The flowers are regular and bisexual with 5 separate sepals and 5 united petals. There are 5 stamens attached at the
base of the ower tube. The ovary is positioned superior. It consists of 2 (sometimes 3 to 5) united carpels with the
partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule with 1 to 2 seeds per carpel.
Worldwide, there are about 60 genera and 1,650 species. The sweet potato is Ipomoea batatas. The seeds of J. tricolor
and Turbina corymbosa contain ergoline alkaloids with psychedelic properties, producing a similar effect to LSD in
large doses. (Read about ergot fungus in the Grass family.) Seeds from commercial sources are often coated in toxic
pesticides.
Key Words: Usually vining plants with star-like creases in funnelform flowers.
Calystegia—false bindweed (25/17/4) Similar to Convolvulus.
Convolvulus—bindweed (250/28/2) * The bindweeds contain glycosides with potent purgative properties (Pammel).
Cressa—alkaliweed (5/2/0) Found in alkaline soils, mostly in the Southwest.
Cuscuta—dodder (170/46/7) * Dodder is a parasitic plant. It attaches itself to another plant, wraps itself around it, and taps
into the host’s vascular system to feed, ultimately allowing its own roots to die off. At maturity, the plant is generally
_ yellow-orange in color, with no apparent roots or leaves. It has sometimes been segregated into its own family, Cuscutaceae.
Dichondra—ponysfoot (10/8/0) Ponysfoot forms a dense mat, often used as a grass substitute for southern lawns.
Evolvulus—dwarf morning glory (64/7/1) Native to the Great Plains and South.
_ Ipomoea—morning glory, man of the earth, sweet potato (400/51/1) * Many species have enlarged, starchy taproots that
are generally edible, but sometimes bitter due to a milky sap in the fresh roots. The bush morning glory (/. leptophylla)
of the Great Plains can have roots 1 foot thick and 4 feet deep. The boiled or roasted root is reported to be exceptional,
but older plants may be bitter (Harrington). The wild potato vine (J. pandurata) of the southeastern states also has large
roots. It is edible, but may require a couple changes of the water to remove the bitterness (Hall).
Medicinally, the root of /: jalapa is listed as cathartic (Lust). The seeds of many Jpomoea species have psycho-
active properties (Emboden). Note that the yam (Dioscorea) is a monocot vine with its own family, Dioscoreaceae.
Jacquemontia—clustervine (46/5/0) These species are mostly native to Florida and the southeastern states. They can be
confused with Convolvulus.
Merremia—woodtose (58/6/0) Native to the coastal plain from Florida to Texas.
Stylisma—(6/6/0) Native to the southeastern states.
145
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Nightshade > Family: Nightshade
Nightshade Family—Solanaceae
The Nightshade family is as familiar as the petunia (Petu-
nia) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). These are mostly herbs
(sometimes vines, shrubs, or trees) with alternate, often fuzzy
leaves and colorless juice. Memorize the texture of a petunia’
leaf to aid in identifying many wild members of this family.
The flowers are typically solitary, bisexual, and regular with usu-
ally 5 united sepals and 5 united petals (rarely 3 to 7 of each).
‘Flowers vary from funnel-form, like the petunia, to reflexed,
with only partially united petals, like a tomato blossom. There
are 5 (rarely 4 to 7) stamens attached to the petals. The ovary is
positioned superior. It consists of usually 2 united carpels with
the partition walls often present, forming an equal number of
chambers (sometimes more, due to false partitions, exceptions,
or breeding). Cut across a maturing fruit, such as the capsule of a
petunia, and you will usually see two chambers inside. Tomatoes
and peppers are highly variable due to breeding.
Worldwide, there are about 85 genera and 2,300 spe-
cies, including many popular food plants. Many varieties of hot
peppers come from Capsicum. Physalis is the tomatillo. Solanum
includes the potato (S. tuberosum) and eggplant (S. melongena).
The Nightshade family is rich in alkaloids. Solanine is
de pout the bitter glyco-alkaloid found in green potato skins, as well
Capsicum annuum as the vegetation and fruits of most Solanum species. In large
amounts (several pounds of green potatoes) it can cause vomit-
ing, diarrhea, headaches, and possible paralysis of the central nervous system. Children are more vulnerable than
adults. Many Nightshades also include narcotic alkaloids, some addictive, such as nicotine from tobacco (Nicotiana).
Most narcotic alkaloids are useful as analgesics to numb the body’s sense of pain. In addition, scopolamine is used to
treat seasickness or vertigo. Soldiers in the Persian Gulf War carried the alkaloid atropine with them as a treatment
for nerve gas attacks (Duke). The juice of Atropa was used by Italian ladies as eye drops to dilate the pupils, hence
the common name belladonna, meaning “fair-lady” (Klein).
Some narcotic Nightshades can cause hallucinations, including Atropa, Datura, Hyoscyamus and Mandragora.
Our European heritage of witches flying on broomsticks comes from these hallucinogenic plants. An ointment con-
taining Atropa and Hyoscyamus was rubbed on the broomstick then absorbed through the vaginal tissues by “riding”
the broom (Emboden). The “witches” then experienced “flying.” These plants are highly poisonous, with a toxicity
that varies from plant to plant. People have died using Nightshades as psychedelics. Symptoms of poisoning include
an unquenchable thirst, dilation of the pupils, delirium, haliucinations, convulsions and coma.
Key Words: Alternate leaves. Flower parts in fives with united petals and a two-chambered ovary.
Atropa—belladonna (4/1/0) A. bella-donna. Introduced.
Bouchetia—painted tongue (4/1/0) B. erecta. Native to Texas.
Browallia—bush violet (7/2/0) B. eludens is native to Arizona. B. americana is introduced from Jamaica.
Calibrachoa—seaside petunia (28/1/0) C. parviflora. Native from Oregon to Virginia and south.
Capsicum—bell pepper, chili pepper, pimento, jalapeno, cayenne, tabasco (35/1/0) * C. annuumis the native pepper, which
has been bred into many varieties, including bell peppers, chili peppers, cayenne peppers, banana peppers, jalapeno,
pequins, and more. Spicy peppers contain capsaicin, which stimulates sensory receptors that normally respond to heat or
pain, creating the illusory sensation of heat. Repeated exposure to capsaicin reduces sensitivity of the nerves, increasing
tolerence for spicy food. Used as a topical treatment, capsaicin also reduces sensitivity, providing pain relief for arthritis
and other inflammatory disorders. It works by depleting “substance P,” the compound that mediates transmission of
pain impulses from the peripheral nerves to the spinal cord. Capsaicin doesn’t stop the pain, but it prevents the signal
from reaching the brain. It is especially helpful for people who still feel pain weeks or months after surgery. A com-
mercial product is marketed as “Capsaicin P.” It takes about three days to become effective. Cayenne pepper is good
146
jimsonweed
Fiske Greenies Pu ; cultivated tobacco | x wih '
Nicotiana tabacum \ be
( y
apple of Peru
Nicandra
, physalodes ¥—__
Patterns of the
Nightshade Family
—— 5 united sepals
5 united petals
5 stamens
2-chambered ovary .
—— 5 united petals oe
= climbing nightshade
Solanum dulcamara 9 ‘1. white petunia
Petunia axillaris
black henbane
Hyoscyamus niger
husk tomato > YS de
Physalis * fe x i
‘ belladonna
pubescens
Atropa bella-donna
a
to have in the first aid kit. Internally, it increases circulation, stimulates digestion and helps to treat shock. Externally,
the powder can be applied to stop bleeding, reduce pain and increase circulation (Sheff).
Chamaesaracha—fve eyes (9/7/0) Native to the southwest. The fruits of at least
some species are edible when cooked.
Datura—Jimsonweed, thorn-apple (18/7/1) * Narcotic. Contains scopolamine,
hyoscyamine, and atropine. Datura is a dangerous plant, and many individu- ’
als have died from misusing it. Do not ingest any part of the plant, period.
A small amount of smoke from the leaves numbs and relaxes the bronchials
for asthma and bronchitis, and it brings temporary sinus relief. A poultice or
bath of the fresh plant is used for its analgesic properties (aching joints, etc.).
However, an extended bath can result in absorption of alkaloids through the
skin and lead to drowsiness (Moore). The poultice may have some effect on
rattlesnake or tarantula bites (Hutchins).
Hunzikeria—cupflower (3/1/0) H. texana. Native to Texas.
Hyoscyamus—henbane (15/1/1) * H. niger. Introduced from Europe. It is now
widespread in areas of disturbed soils. My grandmother picked henbane dur-
ing World War II. It was used as an analgesic for wounded soldiers. Henbane
contains atropine, hyoscyamin, and scopolamine (Schauenberg). It should
never be eaten. The plant is used similarly to Datura (Hutchins).
Jaltomata—false holly (27/1/0) J. procumbens. Native to Arizona.
Lycium—wolfberry, boxthorn, goji berry (110/19/1) * The red, tomato-like berries
are edible fresh or cooked. The fruit isn’t sweet, and palatability varies from
species to species, but it is one of few berries available in the desert southwest.
goji berry
Lycium barbarum
I have picked them in quantity in Arizona. The commercially available goji
berries come from the introduced L. barbarum and L. chinense.
Nectouxia—stinkleaf (1/1/0) NV. formosa. Native to Texas and Mexico.
Nicandra—apple of Peru (1/1/0) N. physalodes. Introduced from Peru. The sepals
encompass the fruit like Physalis.
Nicotiana—tobacco (100/15/1) * Wild tobacco is rare in the North, but fairly common in the South. The fresh herb is used
as a poultice or bath for an analgesic. The leaves can be smoked (Moore). Nicotine is a toxic alkaloid, chemically similar’
to the poisonous water hemlock. It was once used as a pesticide, but caused numerous human fatalities (Schauenberg).
It should never be taken internally.
Oryctes—oryctes (1/1/0) O. nevadensis. A rare plant native to the California-Nevada border.
Petunia—petunia (14/2/0) ¢ Introduced. Sometimes included within Nicotiana. The flowers may be used as an edible garnish.
Physalis (including Margaranthus)— husk tomato, ground cherry, tomatillo (110/34/3) * The sepals enlarge to loosely en-
compass the developing fruit. Most (not all) species produce edible fruits. The tomatillo (P philadelphica), commonly
used in green salsa, originated in Mexico. Wild ground cherries I have found produce yellow fruits. They are initially
sweet, but with a slightly bitter, lingering after taste. I think they are a real treat when I can find them. The fruit can
be used for salsa or made into pie (Lincoff). Green fruits should not be
eaten raw (Bigfoot).
Quincula—Chinese lantern (1/1/0) Q. lobata. Sometimes included in Physalis.
Native from California to Texas and Kansas.
Solanum—(including Lycopersicon )nightshade, bittersweet, potato, eggplant,
buffalobur, tomato (1500/40/5) * Carl Linnaeus classified the tomato
as S. lycopersicum in 1753. It was later segregated into its own genus,
Lycopersicon. But the original name has been restored based on genetics.
Most cultivated potatoes are varieties of S. tuberosum, originally
from the Andes. Most species of Solanum contain the toxic alkaloid
solanine, especially in green parts of the plants (such as green potato
peels). The wild potato (S. jamesii) is native to southwestern states. While
camping in Arizona I was surprised and delighted to dig up one of these
small (marble-sized) wild potatoes while building a primitive shelter.
The introduced black nightshade (S. nigrum) has edible black = buffalobur nightshade
Solanum rostratum
berries, but American black nightshade (S. americanum) as well as species
with green or red tomato-like berries are toxic. Members of this genus
are used externally as an analgesic poultice or bath (Hutchins). The fresh
plant is too dangerous to be used internally without expert assistance.
148
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Olive
Patterns of the Olive Family

berries~ gy¥ & 2 carpels
2 stamens
ie0)
Ny united petals—
Olea europaea
4 united sepals— /\
samaras
(winged seeds)
greenstem Va | a
forsythia common privet RE
Ligustrum vulgare ; white; ash\% common lilac
Forsythia
viridissima Fraxinus americana Syringa vulgaris
Olive Family— Oleaceae

The Olive family is often close at hand. Ash trees (Fraxinus) provide summer shade on college campuses
and city streets in northern latitudes. Lilacs (Syringa) and Forsythia dazzle yards and parks with an early spring show
of flowers. In Mediterranean climates, olive trees (Olea) draw attention with their grey leaves and purple-black fruits
that are often mashed into the ground below. Stop and take a closer look. Most members of the family are shrubs
and trees, generally deciduous in northern latitudes and evergreen in the South. The leaves are usually opposite,
sometimes on squarish stems, as in Forsythia above. The flowers are regular, bisexual, and often aromatic. There are
typically 4 (rarely 5 or more) united sepals and 4 (rarely 0, 5, or more) united petals, plus usually 2 (rarely Ay 5 OF
more) stamens. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels with the partition walls present,
forming 2 chambers. It matures as a capsule, a pair of winged seeds, a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony pit like the
olive), or rarely as a berry. Worldwide, there are about 29 genera and about 600 species. Jasmine fragrance comes
from Jasminum (page 221). Many genera are cultivated.
Key Words: Shrubs or trees with opposite leaves and 4 sepals, 4 petals, and 2 stamens.
Chionanthus—fringetree (80/2/0) Flower petals are long and sometimes thread-like. The fruit is a blue-purple drupe,
prepared like an olive. Native from Texas to New York.
Forestiera—swampprivet (20/8/0) 4, 5, or more stamens. The fruit is a blue-purple drupe, prepared like an olive. Native
to the southern half of North America.
Forsythia—forsythia (11/3/1) ° Yellow flowers may emerge prior to leaves. Fruit isa capsule. Introduced and widely cultivated.
Fraxinus—Ash (60/16/2) * Some species lack petals. The fruit is a winged seed. Native and introduced species are found
across North America. Ash is stimulating, diaphoretic, diuretic and laxative. Drink a tea of the inner bark for depression
or tiredness; a strong tea for a laxative (Willard). A tea of the bark is used to reduce fever and to expel worms (Lust).
an ined-
Ligustrum—privet (50/8/1) The flowers look similar to lilacs (Syringa), but the odor is unpleasant and the fruit is
ible purple berry. Introduced and sometimes invasive. The plant is considered poisonous to horses.
Menodora—menodora (23/5/0) 5 to 10 sepals and 4 to 6 petals. Fruit is a capsule. Native from California to Texas.
Olea—Olive (20/1/0) * O. europaea. Introduced. The green-purple-black fruits are bitter fresh, but the bitterness can be
leached out in a saltwater brine or by a variety of other methods. Medicinally, olive oil is used internally as a laxative,
or externally as an emollient to soothe the skin (Lust). It is often added to herbal salves.
Native
Osmanthus—devilwood, wild olive (30/1/0) O. americanus. The fruit is a blue-purple drupe, prepared like an olive.
from Texas to Virginia.
a salad for color.
Syringa—Lilac (25/5/1) * Fruit is a capsule. Introduced and widely cultivated. I like to add the blossoms to
family.
The Latin Syringa is confusing, because it is also one of the common names of Philadelphus of the Hydrangea
149
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Families: Figwort, Lopseed, and Plantain
Figwort Family—Scrophulariaceae
The Figwort family got gutted in the taxononic name game. This was a magnificent family with fairly
intuitive patterns for identification, but most Figwort genera have been reclassified according to genetic evidence
into the closely related Plantain, Lopseed, and Broomrape families. The Acanthus and Bladderwort families also
have figwort-like flowers. Unfortunately, all of these families are now more complicated to identify, and the remain-.
ing genera in the Figwort family lack strong patterns between them. Nevertheless, being able to recognize a typical
figwort-like flower remains an essential step for identifying any of these six closely related families.
The Figworts and their allies typically have irregular, bisexual flowers with 5 united sepals and 5 united
petals (sometimes 4 of each), usually 2-lipped with 2 lobes up and 3 lobes down. There are 4 or 5 stamens, often in
two pairs, plus a shortened fifth stamen. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels with the
partition walls present, forming 2 chambers. It typically matures as a capsule containing many seeds. The dried up
style of the pistil can often be seen at the tip of the capsule. Be sure to cross-check your specimen with each of the
figwort-like families listed above.
Key Words: Irregular flowers with 2 petal lobes up and 3 down. Capsules with numerous seeds.
Buddleja—butterfly bush (150/11/0) * Flower parts in 4s or 5s. Introduced for cultivation. The wavy petal edges resemble
the Verbena family, but it has been historically classified in the Logania family (Loganiaceae) or its own family (Buddle-
jaceae), and now in the Figwort family.
Limosella—mudwort (15/4/1) Native across North America, except the southeastern states.
Scrophularia—figwort, California bee plant (150/8/1) * Figwort contains saponins (Schauenberg). It has sedative, astringent
and antifungal properties (Moore). It is also diuretic. It is used especially as a skin wash (Lust).
Verbascum—amullein (320/7/2) * 5 equal stamens. Introduced. Mullein has sedative, astringent, and mildly mucilaginous
properties. The leaves can be smoked or made into tea to relax the bronchioles in the initial stages of an infection. A tea
of the root is diuretic and astringent for the urinary tract (Moore). A strong tea or dry powder of the leaves can be applied
to a wound as an effective astringent (Brown). Its mucilaginous quality makes the tea useful as a demulcent to soothe
a sore throat. The dried flower stalk makes a great drill for handdrill fire-starting. Learn how in Participating in Nature.
Lopseed Family—Phrymaceae 7
Plants of the Lopseed family are figwort-like flowers with only -four stamens.
Mimulus—monkey flower (120/89/9) * The plant is edible, but bitter, as a salad green or potherb (Craighead). The root is
astringent (Sweet). Juice of the plant is soothing on minor burns (Tilford).
Phryma—lopseed (1/1/0) P leptostachya. Native to all states and provinces east of the Rocky Mountains. Previously classi-
fied as a member of the Verbena family.
Plantain Family—Plantaginaceae
The traditional Plantain family was small, consisting of only 3 genera and 270 species, almost all of them
plantain (Plantago). However, based on genetic evidence, most members of the Figwort family have been moved into
the Plantain family, making this the new “figwort family.” In addition, the former Mare’s Tail family (Hippuridaceae)
and Water Starwort family (Cadlitrichaceae) were also merged into the Plantain family. The resulting hodgepodge
of plants are genetically related, but don’t share any over-arching patterns for identification. Additional details for
identification are included for each tribe here and on the following pages.
Plantain Tribe—Plantagineae
These are low, green plants with inconspicuous flowers. The leaves appear to have parallel venation like
monocts, but there are smaller, netted veins between the main veins. The flowers are greenish and small, forming
on a slender stalk. They are regular and bisexual with 4 united sepals, 4 united petals, and 4 stamens. The ovary is
positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a circumscissile (lidded)
capsule with 1 or more seeds per cell, or sometimes as a nut. See illustrations, pages 37 and 214.
Littorella—shoreweed (3/1/0) L. uniflora. Native from Minnesota to Labrador.
Plantago—plantain (260/34/8) * Broad-leaf plantain (2 major) was introduced from Eurasia. The leaves are delicious batter-
fried, or the young leaves can be added to a salad. They are rich in the vitamins A, C, and K (Tilford). The leaves contain
allantoin, useful for soothing skin sores (Duke), or secured over a wound as a bandage (Willard). Plantain is a gentle
astringent useful for stomach ulcers, bee stings, and such. Sand plantain (2 psyllium) is the source of psyllium seed, used
as a bulk laxative in products like Metamucil®. The seed husks swell up in water, resulting in soft, large stools that are
easier to pass. Plantain seeds have also been used to absorb toxins (Klein) or bad cholesterol from the intestinal tract.
150
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Families: Figwort, Lopseed, and Plantain
seep
monkeyflower
Mimulus) ~
guttatus
‘J mostly
4 or 5 stamens irregular
== flowers
4 or 5 united pans-{(@))
brs iS
4 -4or5 united sepals”
ovary matures
as acapsule—— &
True Figworts
Figwort Family
woodland figwort
Scrophularia nodosa
common E rs
usually opposite leaves
mullein
Figworts moved to the
Verbascum
thapsus Lopseed Family
common snapdragon
\ Antirrhinum majus
Figworts moved to the
blue-eyed Mary
Plantain Family
Collinsia parviflora
Wasatch
beardtongue
“~, Penstemon
/ cyananthus
A
q
y woodland \
" beardtongue \\ \
Nothochelone % butter and
\ eggs toadflax ’ bunchleaf penstemon
nemorosa
Linaria vulgaris Penstemon heterophyilus
151
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Plantain
Water Starwort Tribe—Callitricheae

These are aquatic plants with usually whorled or opposite leaves and usually bisexual flowers. The sepals
are greatly reduced or absent, and there are no petals. There is only one 1 stamen. The ovary consists of 1 carpel in
Callitriche) or 2 carpels with false partitions, making a four-chambered ovary in Hippuris. Also read about the Water
Milfoil family.
Callitriche—water starwort (7/12/4) Native throughout North America.
Hippuris—mare's tail (1/1/1) * Mare’s tail is edible as a potherb any time of year (Harrington). Reportedly, the plants are
best harvested between fall and spring, and even the browned, over-wintered stems can be eaten. Alaska natives once
stored mare's tail in big piles to eat in winter. Medicinally, the juice of the plant is used internally or externally as a
vulnerary (Fern), meaning the plant aids the healing process, without specifying how.
Snapdragon Tribe—Antirrhineae
These are often highly ornate figwort-like flowers with a distinctive “mouth.” Squeeze and release the sides
of the flower to make the mouth open and close.
Antirrhinum—snapdragon (20/1/1) A. majus. Widely cultivated and sometimes locally naturalized.
Gambelia—greenbright (4/1/0) G. speciosa. Native to California.
Linaria—toadflax (150/12/1) * Introduced, and sometimes invasive. Linaria is astringent, diuretic and cathartic. It is
primarily used for its diuretic and antilithic properties (Lust).
Mohavea—desert snapdragon (2/2/0) Native to the southwestern states.
Nuttallanthus—toadflax (4/3/1) Native to North America, except for the Great Basin states.
Turtlehead Tribe—Cheloneae
These are classic figwort-like flowers, elongated, usually with well defined petal lobes, 2 up and 3 down.
Chelone—turtlehead (4/4/0) Native to the eastern states. See illustration, page ii.
Collinsia—blue-eyed Mary (20/19/1) * Native to most of North America, except the southeastern states.
Keckiella—keckiella (7/7/0) May resemble Penstemon. Native from Oregon to Arizona.
Nothochelone—woodland beardtongue (1/1/0) N. nemorosa. Formerly included in Penstemon. Native to the Pacific Coast.
Penstemon—penstemon (300/210/25) * Many species found across the continent. Astringent (Moore) and diuretic (Sweet).
Foxglove Tribe—Digitalideae
These obvious figwort-like flowers, but often with less-pronounced petal lobes.
Digitalis—foxglove (21/5/1) * Introduced and often cultivated for its flowers. It contains dangerous cardiac glycosides used
for heart arrhythmia. Handling the plant may cause rashes, nausea, and headache in some individuals (Lust).
Hedge Hyssop Tribe—Gratioleae

These flowers generally have shorter floral tubes than the Turtlehead tribe,
and some are only slightly irregular.
Gratiola—hedge hyssop (20/13/2) Native to all of North America. Gratiola contains
cardiac glycosides (Schauenberg). It is listed as cardiac, diuretic, purgative and
vermifuge. It is considered too dangerous for amateurs to use (Lust).
Speedwell
Tribe Bacopa—waterhyssop (100/7/1) Native to most states. The crushed leaves have a
lemon-like scent.
Plantain
Family Capraria—goatweed (27/1/0) C. biflora. Native to Texas and Florida.
Limnophila—marshweed (40/2/0) Introduced to California, Texas, and Florida.
Scoparia—licorice weed (10/2/0) Native and introduced species are found from Texas
to Virginia.
Speedwell Tribe— Veroniceae

Plants of the Speedwell tribe typically have irregular or nearly regular
flowers with 4 sepals, 4 petals, and only 2 stamens.
Besseya—kittentail (8/8/2) * Native to the western and northern states. They are
among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
Synthyris—kittentail (14/9/3) Native to the western states.
7 Veronica—speedwell, brooklime (300/30/9) * Found throughout North America. The
AS plant is edible raw or cooked, but bitter (Harrington). Medicinally, the various
} corn speedwell species are mildly diuretic, diaphoretic and expectorant (Lust).
iA)" Veronica arvensis Veronicastrum—Culver’s root (14/1/0) V. virginicum. Native east of the Rockies.
152
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Bladderwort
Patterns of the Bladderwort Family

These are insectivorous plants with figwort-like flowers.
2 stamens
5 united petals is Ovary matures—

=~ 2 to 5 sepals— as a capsule.
he
bract
aN
if \\
flatleaf wind Sf common

bladderwort ¢ butterwort
Utricularia Pinguicula
intermedia vulgaris}
yellow
butterwort
) —— SS Pinguicula lutea
Bladderwort Family—Lentibulariaceae
The Bladderworts are primarily insectivorous plants of humid, moist, or sometimes aquatic habitats, but a
few species in seasonally arid climates have adapted by going dormant during the dry season. Like other insectivorous
plants, the Bladderworts are adapted to nutrient-poor soils and compensate by preying on insects. Each genera uses
a different method for trapping their prey, as described below. Like other insectivorous plants, the Bladderworts have
tall flower stems to separate potential pollinators from the traps below. The flowers are irregular and bisexual with
figwort-like characteristics. There are usually 2 (sometimes 4 or 5) united sepals and 5 united petals, and usually just
2 stamens (sometimes 4). The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber.
It matures as a capsule. Worldwide there are 3 genera and 300 species, with 2 genera in North America. Two former
genera, Polypompholyx and Biovularia, have been reclassified within Utricularia.
Key Words: Insectivorous plants with figwort-like flowers.

Genlisea—corkscrew plant (27/0/0) Native to Central and South America and Africa, but not found in North America.
The plants trap minute microfauna, such as protozoans, with the aid of highly modified hollow underground leaves.
Prey organisms enter the hollow tubes and then move deeper and deeper inside, guided by directional hairs that allow
the organisms to pass forward more easily than backward.
Pinguicula—butterwort (35/8/1) The petals form a spur on the back of the flower with nectar to attract pollinators. Vari-
ous native species are found in the northern states and Canada, as well as in the southeast, but not in the horizontal
band from Nevada to Virginia and New Jersey. Butterworts capture insects with sticky leaves, much like plants of the
Sundew family. When an insect comes in contact with a leaf, glands in the leaf release additional sticky mucilage and
digestive enzymes. The nutrients are absorbed through the leaf surface, leaving only the exoskeleton behind on the
surface of the leaf.
Utricularia—bladderwort (250/21/3) Native throughout North America and found worldwide. The plants are adapted
to fresh water and wet soil, and use sophisticated bladder traps to catch their prey. Terrestrial species typically prey
on minute rotifers and protozoa in water-saturated soil, while aquatic species have larger traps to catch nematodes,
water fleas, mosquito larvae, small tadpoles, and even fish fry. The trap door springs open when an organism brushes
up against it. Due to negative pressure inside the trap, the organism and the water surrounding it are swept inside the
trap before the door closes again.
153
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Broomrape
Broomrape Family—Orobanchaceae
The Broomrape family consists of plants with figwort-like flowers that are parasitic on other plants, typically
feeding off their root systems. The traditional family included only genera lacking chlorophyll, which are easy to
recognize, since the vegetation isn’t green. Taxonomists have expanded the family to include partially parasitic (hemi-
Holoparasitic Plants of the parasitic) genera, which were formerly |
included in the Figwort family. These
Broomrape nN i, plants have chlorophyll and produce their
clustered broomrape ° ‘Z own energy through photosynthesis, so
ig ile fasciculata Ve they are not wholly dependent on their
“= host plants.
Unfortunately, the casual observer
would not recognize them as hemipara-
sitic plants, so the connection to the
Broomrape family is not obvious. But
these new additions to the family often
have highly modified or contorted flow-
ers. There are typical figwort-like features,
Si such as irregular, tubular flowers, often
pifagus
ye virginiana with 2 petal lobes up and 3 down, but
| most flowers are contorted such that they
S=x- do not look like other figworts, either.
There are several tribes of closely related
= genera within the Broomrape family, but
hemp
broomrape ¥
g= for convenience in identification, all are
1 Jia. ue ae tae d .
Orobanche ial wr age & Le Eee e: =" lumped into two groups below, those with
aM0sa = Ea ie ODS EO ey ~~and without chlorophyll.
Key Words: Parasitic plants with figwort-like flowers.

Holoparasitic Genera (Plants without chlorophyll)
Orobanche—broomrape (100/16/4) * Native and introduced species are found across North America. Some species have
swollen, starchy, edible roots (Olsen). O. fasciculata is edible in salad or roasted. Medicinally, broomrapes are highly
astringent, useful externally as a powerful drawing poultice; internally, the tea is a uterine homeostatic (Moore). A tea
of the blanched or powdered seeds reduces swelling for toothaches or joint inflammation (Willard). These are often
rare plants, so utilize them conscientiously.
Boschniakia—groundcone (3/3/0) Native from Alaska to California.
Conopholis—cancer root (2/2/0) Found in the southwest, as well as eastern North America.
Epifagus—beechdrops (1/1/0) E. virginiana. Associated with beech trees. It is native from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
Hemiparasitic Genera (Plants with chlorophyll)

Agalinis—false foxglove (70/33/0) Native to North America east of the Rocky Mountains.
Castilleja—Indian paintbrush (200/109/22) * The blossoms are edible, but they may absorb selenium from the soil, so
you should not eat too many of them. The plants have been used for womens ailments and for rheumatism; the uses
are possibly related to the selenium content (Willard). It functions as an astringent to stop menstrual flow (Vogel).
Cordylanthus—bird’s beak (18/18/2) Hemiparasitic. Native to the western United States.
Euphrasia—eyebright (450/11/1) Native to the northern states and Canada. Astringent, often used as an eye-wash (Lust).
Melampyrum—cowwheat (10/1/1) M. lineare. Native to Canada and the northern and eastern states.
Orthocarpus—owl clover (9/9/2) * Native from New Mexico to Ontario, west to the, Pacific. Many species have been
reclassified as Castilleja.
Pedicularis—lousewort, elephant head (600/40/10) * Native throughout the continent. The root and plant of some species
are edible raw or cooked (Willard), but the plants are partly parasitic and may absorb toxins from nearby poisonous
plants such as groundsels (Senecio). Please refer to Michael Moore's Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West for detailed
information on this plant.
Rhinanthus—trattleweed (30/3/1) Native to the northern states, the Rockies, and all of Canada.
Triphysaria—owl clover (5/5/0) Native from California to British Columbia. Closely related to Castilleja and Orthocarpus.
154
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Broomrape
giant red = he 4h
Indian paintbrush ‘SS : Wt
Castilleja miniata /
wi
Hemiparasitic Plants of the

Broomrape Family
(Formerly in the Figwort Family)
common eyebright
Euphrasia nemorosa
little yellow rattle

Rhinanthus minor
Canadian lousewort
Pedicularis canadensis
Pediculans flammea
155
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Acanthus
Only 3 petals
andsepals in Acanthus. Patterns of the Acanthus Family
Figwort-like flowers with bracts found in warmer climates.
\
ovary with 2 carpets~¢@)) V7 bracts
Y, a
2 or 4 stamens
ae or 5 petals
4 or 5 sepals
bear breeches
Acanthus mollis
=S AV
sepals _~j
\ Tetramerium nervosum yp early shaggytuft

Stenandrium barbatum
Acanthus Family—Acanthaceae
If you live in a Mediterranean or tropical climate, then you are likely to encounter the figwort-like flowers
of the Acanthus family, such as the cultivated bear breeches (Acanthus). Plants of this family are mostly herbs and
shrubs with simple and opposite or sometimes basal leaves. Flowers are usually grouped in a spike, often with one
or more bracts (modified leaves) by each blossom. Bracts may be colorful andpetal-like. The flowers are irregular
(sometimes only slightly) with typically 4 or 5 (rarely 3) united sepals and 4 or 5 (rarely 3) united petals. There are
2 or 4 stamens, which are attached to the petals. The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 united carpels
forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule, which often explosively ejects the seeds. Worldwide there are about
220 genera and 4000 species, mostly in the tropics. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Figwort-like flowers with bracts found in warmer climates.
Acanthus—acanthus, bear breeches (30/1/0) * A. mollis. Only 3 sepals and 3 petals. Introduced to California for cultiva-
tion. I became acquainted with this plant and its unusual flowers as a child, since my parents grew a row of Acanthus
next to my sandbox.
Carlowrightia—wrightwort (24/8/0) Native from California to Texas.
Dicliptera—foldwing (230/3/0) Native from Arizona to Virginia.
Dyschoriste—snakeherb (110/6/0) Native from Arizona to South Carolina.
Hygrophila—swampweed (125/5/0) Native and introduced species are found from Texas to Georgia.
Justicia—waterwillow (420/16/0) Native from California to Quebec.
Ruellia—wild petunia (168/18/0) Some species resemble the true Petunia of the Nightshade family. Native from Arizona
to Minnesota, east to the Atlantic.
Stenandrium—shaggytuft (38/2/0) Native from Arizona to Florida.
Tetramerium—fournwort (60/4/0) 7) nervosum. Native from Arizona to Texas. ~
Yeatesta—bractspike (2/2/0) Native from Texas to Florida.
156
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Mint
Patterns of the tie, SOs

AR
Mint Family it Wh
‘a - Vw iSuR i
as RA i ) Sa \\
SNS Ws
4 stamens SINPPONS LUANG
N — (2 long,2 short) ee
a ANY
ARWe Jo Y
\ : s \ 43
BES ue SN fe
7 5united petals
AVE
(2 lobes up, 3 down)
ican
ea Nat
Sot a:
as SE x
oe SoD, x
é NaN ,
SS Ss
By MY 3 hye
; ae P#, SCLIN, GP Sai NN WI =
common ‘a : ® se
horehound WK? flower matures into a RC. Sonne
Macubiain _— square stalk
seed capsule containing
four nutlets
WA uate
Ch S
ieaare
vulgare E r" ~\
Mint Family—Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Key Words: Square stalks and opposite leaves. Usually aromatic.
If you find a plant with a square stalk and simple, opposite leaves it may be a member of the Mint family.
If it is also aromatic (crush and smell a leaf), then it is almost certainly a member of this family. Mint flowers are
bisexual and irregular. Technically, Mint flowers are similar to Figwort flowers, with 5 united sepals and 5 united
petals, usually 2-lipped with 2 lobes up and 3 lobes down. And yet, there are distinct differences between Mints and
Figworts that are easy to see, but difficult to describe. (Compare the illustrations in this book, and you will see the
similarities and differences.) Inside the flower, there are 4 stamens, with one pair longer than the other. The ovary is
positioned superior. It consists of 2 united carpels and matures as a capsule containing 4 nutlets. (False partitions may
make it appear 4-chambered.) Worldwide there are about 180 genera and 3,500 species. Approximately 50 genera
are found in North America. Other plants with square stems and opposite leaves which may be confused with the
Mints are found in the Loosestrife, Verbena, and Stinging Nettle families.
Many species from the Mint family are popular kitchen spices, including: basil (Ocimum), rosemary (Rosma-
rinus), lavender (Lavandula), marjoram (Origanum), mint, peppermint, spearmint (Mentha), germander (Teucrium),
thyme (Thymus), savory (Satureja), horehound (Marrubium), and sage (Salvia). (Note that sagebrush (Artemisia) is
in the Aster family.) The Coleus is a popular ornamental houseplant from the Mint family.
~ Medicinally, this family is rich in volatile oils, especially menthol. Spicy and stimulating, volatile oils warm
the body, open the pores, and encourage sweating. This diaphoretic property is useful to help break a fever. A fever
is the body’s way of “cooking” the microorganisms that cause infections. Spicy teas and food can help raise a mild
fever just high enough to “cook” a virus, thus ending the fever. Spicy foods also have a vasodilator effect, opening up
the blood vessels to facilitate circulation. This property is useful in cases of hypertension, or for stimulating delayed
menstruation, called an emmenagogue. Most members of this family are astringent, but a few are bitter, resulting in
different uses between them. Astringent mints are often recommended as menstrual regulators, apparently because
the volatile oils stimulate menstruation, while the astringents suppress it—a balancing effect, in theory. Bitter mints
to
like false pennyroyal (Hedeoma), horehound (Marrubium), mints (Mentha), and coyote mint (Monardella) tend
have a more pronounced vasodilating effect. Some of these herbs may be dangerous during pregnancies, due to their
anthelmintic (worm-killing) and menstrual-stimulating properties. The most dangerous ones are those that are also
bitter (irritating). Read more about volatile oils in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
157
Edible and Medicinal Properties of the Mint Family plants
Agastache—giant hyssop (22/14/2) * Agastache is astringent, diaphoretic and carminative.

Dracocephalum (including Moldavica)—false dragonhead (75/4/1) * The seeds can be ground into flour, or cooked into
mush, and eaten (Olsen). The plant is probably astringent.
Glechoma—ground ivy (12/1/1) G. hederacea. Introduced from Europe. It contains tannins, bitters and volatile oils ©
(Schauenberg). The herb has been used for respiratory ailments, including bronchitis, pneumonia and coughs (Tilford).
Galeopsis—hempnettle (10/3/1) A tea of the plant is astringent, diuretic and expectorant. It is used especially for clearing
bronchial congestion. Also used as a blood purifier (Lust).
Hedeoma—false pennyroyal (38/14/2) Found throughout North America. Image on page 213. See also Mentha.
Hyssopus—hyssop (10/1/1) H. officinalis. Introduced from Europe. It is carminative, tonic, expectorant, vasodilator and
anthelmintic (Hutchins). Also reported as astringent and an emmenagogue (Lust); used for nose and throat infections.
Lamium—dead nettle, henbit (40/5/2) * Dead nettle contains tannin, mucilage, and many flavonoids; it is used as a mild
astringent and expectorant (Schauenberg). The whole plant is edible (Tilford).
Leonurus—motherwort (20/3/1) Antispasmodic, nervine, anthelmintic, laxative and an emmenagogue (Hutchins). Also
astringent (Lust). The plant contains bitters, tannins, volatile oils, and an alkaloid (Schauenberg). Motherwort is used
to slow and strengthen the heartbeat while lowering high blood pressure. It is also used as a uterine tonic and antispas-
modic, hence the common name (Tilford).
Lycopus—bugleweed, water horehound (12/10/3) Bugleweed is edible, but tough and bitter (Tilford). Medicinally, bugleweed
is mildly astringent, useful internally or externally to stop bleeding (Moore). It also contains some bitters (Schauenberg)
and is useful as an expectorant (Tilford). Bugleweed is often used for its mild antispasmodic, nervine, and sedative
properties, much like hops vines from the Hemp family (Moore).
Marrubium—horehound (30/1/1) * M. vulgare. Introduced from Europe. The plant is aromatic and very bitter and therefore
useful as a digestive aid or as a cough suppressant and expectorant. The herb is often added to cough syrups. Hore-
hound candy is much easier to consume than the bitter herb or tea. Excessive use may lead to hypertension (Moore).
Horehound also contains tannic acid (Schauenberg).
Mentha—mint, spearmint, peppermint, pennyroyal (15/11/2) * As a child I loved picking peppermint (M. piperita—im-
age on page 212) on outings with my grandmother. Today I still nibble on the leaves to freshen my breath as I walk.
I often eat peppermint when drinking from streams to help kill microbes in the water. Mints are the main source of
menthol, a volatile oil used for its penetrating vapors to relieve congestion or as a carminative to aid digestion. These
are the original “after dinner mints.”
Pennyroyal (M. pulegium—image on page 213) is diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and bitter. It is used as a tea
to stimulate a sweat, or to stimulate digestion. The tea is also a menstrual stimulant and vasodilator and can be used
to stimulate contractions in an overdue pregnancy (Moore). At least one person has died from ingesting pure, distilled
pennyroyal oil to cause an abortion. It is also a nervine (Hutchins) and carminative (Lust).
Monarda—horsemint, bee balm, bergamot (18/18/1) * Horsemint is diaphoretic, refrigerant, carminative, anthelmintic,
mildly sedative and diuretic. A poultice can be use for headaches (Willard). The cool tea is used as an emmenagogue
(Moore). At least some species contain tymol, an antiseptic compound used in commercial mouthwashes. Native
Americans used it as a tea for mouth and throat infections (Tilford). Oil of bergamot is reported to have a calming
effect on birds if it is rubbed on the bill, near the nostrils (Verrill).
Monardella—coyote mint, false horsemint (20/22/0) The plant is used identically to Hedeoma (see above) (Moore).
Nepeta—catnip (150/2/1) * The young leaves and buds may be added to asalad (Tilford). Medicinally, catnip contains volatile
oils (Densmore) with mild antispasmodic, nervine, and sedative properties (Moore). It makes a wonderful and mildly
relaxing tea. Catnip is also carminative, useful to expel gas or aid indigestion (Tilford). It is an effective emmenagogue
(Hutchins). The reason cats like the smell of catnip is because it is chemically similar to the secretions from the anal
glands of cats (Klein)! Lions, tigers, leopards, and jaguars are affected by lavender instead (Verrill).
Prunella—self heal (5/2/1) * Not aromatic. Heal-all is edible as a salad green or potherb (Tilford). Medicinally it is carmina-
tive, anthelmintic, diuretic, antispasmodic, astringent, and mildly bitter. (Willard, Klein).
Salvia—sage, chia (500/56/2) * S. columbarae is chia; the seeds are edible, high in protein and mucilaginous (Bigfoot).
Many species of Salvia are richly aromatic and can be used as spices or antimicrobials. Ornamental varieties often lack
aromatics. Sagebrush (Artemisia) belongs to the Aster family, and tastes nothing like culinary sage.
Scutellaria—skullcap (200/42/3) ¢ Skullcap contains a flavonoid called scutellarin, with antispasmodic, nervine, and sedative
properties, used especially in cases of acute or chronic nervous tension or anxiety (Tilford). It also acts as a vasodilator
to reduce high blood pressure (Hutchins) and to increase menstruation (Lust).
Stachys—hedge nettle, betony (200/30/1) * The roots of some species are starchy and edible (Sturtevant). The seeds are
edible parched or roasted and ground into meal (Olsen). Stachys contains up to 15 percent tannic acid (Schauenberg),
useful for diarrhea and irritations of the mucous membranes (Tyler).
158
ground ivy Mint Family

Glechoma
hederacea |
common marsh
horehound skullcap
Marrubium Scutellaria
blue giant hyssop vulgare galericulata
Agastache foeniculum
E hiped sate water mint

: g Mentha aquatica
i Salvia coccinea
¥
wild bergamot — di
Monarda fistulosa f common motherwort
a /Y Leonurus cardiaca
SD)
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Mint > Family: Verbena
petal edges
ae Patterns of the ‘ # are often wavy
@ Verbena Family
Ovary with 2 carpels
(false partitions can
make 4 chambers)
slightly
irregular
flowers
\
5 united petals
5 united sepals
bract
swamp verbena
Verbena hastata lantana
5 Fin
eS a golden dewdrops Lantana
= opposite leaves Duranta erecta camara
Verbena Family—Verbenaceae
The Verbena family is common in the South, with only a few species found in the northern latitudes. The
family includes mostly herbs and shrubs, but also a few trees. The leaves are usually opposite or whorled and occa-
sionally aromatic. The flowers are mostly bisexual and slightly irregular. They bloom in elongated spikes, often with
wavy petal edges that are a good clue to the family. There are usually 5 united sepals and 5 united petals, forming
a tube with unequal lobes. There are 4 stamens (sometimes 2 or 5 outside the continent). The ovary is positioned
superior. It consists of 2 (rarely 4 or 5) united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of
chambers. Additional false partitions may be present in some species. The fruit matures as 1 to 2 nutlets per carpel
or sometimes as a drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony pit). Worldwide, there are about 35 genera and 1,200 species.
Only Verbena is widespread across the continent. It has squarish stems and may be confused spit the Mints. Note
that an unrelated plant in the Four-O’Clock family is known as “sand verbena.”
Based on genetic evidence, taxonomists have moved several genera from the Verbena family into the Mint
family. North America genera include: beautyberry (Callicarpa), glorybowers (Clerodendrum), and chastetree (Vitex).
In addition, black mangrove (Avicennia) is now in. the Acanthus family, and lopseed (Phryma) has a family of its own.
The unrelated butterfly bush (Buddleja) greatly superficially resembles plants of the Verbena family.
Key Words: Slightly irregular flowers with parts in 5s and often wavy petals.
Bouchea— bouchea (3/3/0) Native from Arizona to Texas.
Citharexylum—fiddlewood (70/3/0) These are trees and shrubs native to Florida and Texas, south to Argentina.
Duranta—dewdrops (17/1/0) D. erecta. Native from California to Florida.
Lantana—lantana, shrub verbena (160/8/0) The native and introduced shrubs are often cultivated for their flowers in the
southern states. The vegetation is generally considered toxic, and may be useful as a pesticide (Cook).
Lippia—lippia (200/2/0) These tropical flowering plants are found in Florida, Texas, and New Mexico. The vegetation is
fragrant. L. graveolens may be used in cooking like oregano.
Phyla—fogfruit (15/8/0) Various species are found across North America, except for the northwestern states and provinces.
Priva—catstongue (24/1/0) P lappulacea. Native to Texas and Florida. ;
Stachytarpheta (11/2/0) S. jamaicensis is native to Florida and southern Alabama.
Verbena—verbena, vervain (230/47/3) * Verbena contains glycosides, tannins, bitters, and volatile oils (Schauenberg). Me-
dicinally, it is sedative, diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic and bitter tonic. The tea is taken to relieve cold symptoms
and to settle the stomach, but it is bitter, and too much can cause nausea and vomiting (Moore).
160
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Aster > Family: Harebell
Harebell Family—Campanulaceae
<)
seed
if, @\V3 carpels
If you find a plant with beautiful flowers, alternate leaves, capsule
and milky sap, it may belong to the Harebell family. Excluding the
&
&>
Lobelias (described below), members of the Harbell family have ea 5 stamens #
delicate, bell-shaped flowers, which are bisexual and mostly regular.
/5 united petals
There are 5 (sometimes 3, 4, or 10) separate sepals, 5 (rarely 4)
5 sepals
united petals, and 5 stamens. Flowers are most often blue, purple,
or white. The ovary is positioned inferior or partly so, and consists
of 3 (sometimes 2 or 5) united carpels, as indicated by the number
of styles. Partition walls are present, forming an equal number of
chambers. False partitions may make it seem like more chambers.
The ovary matures as a capsule (rarely a berry) with numerous seeds.
Worldwide, there are about 70 genera and 2,000 species.
Many species contain inulin polysaccharides and cyanogenic glyco-
sides (Zomlefer). Laurentia provides isotomin, a heart poison.
Key Words: Bell-shaped flowers,

usually with milky juice in the stems.
Campanula—harebell (300/29/6) * Harebells are sometimes called
“bluebells,” but there are also bluebells (ertensia) in the Bor-
age family. The leaves and roots are edible (Willard, Harrington,
Sturtevant), as are the flowers. The roots of some species are edible
and worth harvesting. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West.
Heterocodon—pearl|flower (1/1/0) H. rariflorum. Pacific states.
Jasione—sheep’s bit (15/1/0) J. montana. Imported from Europe. It is rampion bellflower
naturalized in the East Coast states. Campanula rapunculoides
Triodanis (including Specularia)—Venus looking glass (8/7/1) Found of
the
Patterns
Family
Harebell
across North America.
Lobelia Subfamily—Lobelioideae
The Lobelia subfamily includes irregular, figwort-like flowers, often with pointy lobes. Like other members
of the Harebell family, the Lobelias have milky sap.
Key Words: Figwort-like flowers, 5 united pe tals—_ ==
often with pointy lobes. Milky juice a Ee / \
in the stems.
Downingia—calicoflower (13/13/1) Native
J RS sepa
wy " '\sepals sche
petal lobes are
to the western states and provinces. often pointy—
Howellia—water howellia (1/1/1) H. aqua-
tilis. Native to the Pacific Northwest.
Lobelia—lobelia, cardinal flower
(380/29/2) L. inflata is a popular herb Family
Harebell
for the lungs. Other species are used
similarly, but vary in potency. Lobelia Subfamily
Lobelia
ye
has milky sap containing pyridine alka-
loids. It stimulates the nervous system,
then depresses it. In moderate dosesit = 5. 4 ,
dilates the bronchioles and increases aw
respiration. Overdose leads to respira-
tory depression, low blood pressure
and coma (Tyler). The plant
: can also flatface
be smoked for asthma (Bigfoot). calico ower }
Porterella—porterella (1/1/1) P carnosula. Downingia aL cardinalflower
pulchella Lobelia cardinalis
Native to the West.
161
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Aster > Family: Buckbean
_—5 stamens
‘5 sepals
(united at the base) ovary matures
as a capsule
buckbean
Menyanthes
trifoliata
a deercabbage
Nephrophyllidium
ayy cnista-galli Patterns of the
yellow floatingheart AU i?
or
Nymphoides peltata Buckbean Family
Buckbean Bt Merynanchaitie
The Buckbeans are a small family of aquatic and wetland plants. The flowers are regular, bisexual, and
tubular. There are 5 sepals, usually united at the base, and 5 united petals, forming a funnel. The petals are often
fuzzy or imprinted with a star-like pattern. There are 5 stamens, attached to the corolla tube. The ovary is positioned
superior and consists of 2 united carpels forming a single chamber. It matures as a capsule (sometimes a berry) with
many seeds. Worldwide there are 5 genera and about 60 species. Liparophyllum and Villarsia are found only in the
southern hemisphere. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Aquatic plants with flower parts in 5s and united petals.
Menyanthes—buckbean (1/1/1) M. trifoliata. Native throughout North America, except for the South. Buckbean contains
a bitter substance. The fresh plant is emetic. The dried plant functions as a bitter to stimulate digestion, relieve gas,
and act asa cathartic. It is high in vitamin C, iron and iodine, and is thus used as a tonic for general health (Willard).
The roots are sometimes crushed and washed to remove the bitterness, then used as flour (Sturtevant).
Nephrophyllidium—deercabbage (1/1/0) N. crista-galli. Native from Oregon to Alaska.
Nymphoides—floating heart (50/6/0) Native and introduced species are distributed from Texas and Florida north to Quebec,
plus the Pacific Coast states.
162
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Aster > Family: Aster
A Typical Disk Flower

Patterns of the stigmas es,
Aster or Sunflower Family 5 stamens fused
around pistil
Plants of the Aster family are composites of mT
many small flowers in a disk-like flowerhead. jf ie
Asters are often easy
to recognize from
adistance. << \
WA BAH
Wit
See pappus hair— ‘ia
(sepals)
we = Even the "petals" ovary ~

are individual flowers.
Each seed is produced

by a single tiny flower.
d DN Ewe Ny
sui ok multiple layers
curlycup gumweed
araxacum of bracts are common
Grindelia squarrosa
Aster or Sunflower Family—Asteraceae (Compositae)

Despite simple appearances, the Asters are highly complex plants. To identify flower parts, one normally
starts on the outside of a ower and works inward: sepals, petals, stamens, pistil(s). But that doesn’t work with the
Asters. The “sepals” are actually bracts (modified leaves), which often appear in multiple layers. The “petals” make it
appear that there is just one big flower, but look closely inside and you will discover many smaller flowers—dozens
or even hundreds of them! In a sunflower (Helianthus), for example, each seed is produced by a small, five-petaled
disk flower within the larger head. Each disk flower has its own itsy-bitsy petals, stamens, and pistil. The sepals have
been reduced to small scales, transformed into a hairy “pappus,” or sometimes eliminated altogether. Each big “petal”
around the flowerhead is also an individual flower, known as a ray flower. These flowers are often infertile, without
stamens or a pistil. Members of the Aster family can have disk flowers, ray flowers, or both.
The pitted disk of the flowerhead is an excellent clue to the Aster family at any time of year. Look for it on
a dandelion, for example, after the seeds have blown away. Ilike to think of this pitted disk as the garden where all
the little flowers were planted. Another good clue to the Asters is the multiple layers of bracts surrounding the flow-
erhead. In an artichoke those are the scale-like pieces we pull off and eat. Most members of this family do not have
pattern of
that many bracts, but there are frequently two or more rows. This is not a foolproof test, only a common
the Aster family. Also look inside the flowerhead for the individual flowers. Disk flowers are often quite small. Even
the common yarrow (Achillea), with its tiny flowerheads, usually has a dozen or more nearly microscopic flowers
inside each head. Note that many Asters, such as sagebrush (Artemisia), lack an obvious outer ring of ray flowers.
The Asters are the second largest family of flowering plants, surpassed only by the mostly tropical Orchid
species in
family. Worldwide, there are about 920 genera and 19,000 species, including about 346 genera and 2,687
are
North America. Aside from lettuce (Lactuca), artichoke (Cynara), and endive (Cichorium), surprisingly few genera
family, then read about each of the
cultivated for food. When you have identified a plant as a member of the Aster
tribe of the Aster subfamily,
following subfamilies (Chicory/Dandelion, Thistle, Mutisia, and Aster) as well as each
on within the
to get a better sense of which group your specimen belongs to. Taxonomists have tweaked classificati
and tribes utilized here may differ
Aster family to more accurately reflect genetic relationships, so the subfamilies
Thistle and Mutisias
somewhat from older sources, but most of the changes are relatively minor. For example, the
the same.
were elevated from tribes to subfamilies, but the plants included within each group are still
163
Chicory Subfamily—Cichorioideae
The Chicory or Dandelion subfamily is the most distinct sub-grouping of the Aster family. The distinguishing
feature is the strap-shaped petals—the ray flowers have mostly parallel edges like a strap, instead of tapered edges like
the petals of other flowers. These ray flowers often overlap all the way to the center of the flower, like a dandelion.
There are no disk flowers. Another pattern of this subfamily is the milky juice in the stems. Most, if not all, members |
of the Chicory subfamily are edible, but bitter due to the milky juice. The bitterness makes these plants valuable as
digestive aids. For example, dandelion leaves (Zaraxacum) are known as a “spring tonic,” used to cleanse the liver
after a long winter of eating hard-to-digest foods. Note that many unrelated plants also have milky juice and some
are poisonous, so check the flower to make sure it is a member of the Chicory subfamily before you eat it!
Agoseris—talse dandelion (11/10/3) * The leaves are edible. The hardened, milky juice can be chewed as gum (Olsen).
Anisocoma—scalebud (1/1/0) A. acaulis. Native to the desert southwest.
Atrichoseris—gravel ghost (1/1/0) A. platyphylla. Native to the desert southwest.
Calycoseris—tackstem (2/2/0) Native to the desert southwest.
Chaetadelpha—skeletonweed (1/1/0) C. wheeleri. Native to the Southwest. See also Lygodesmia (below).
Cichorium—chicory, endive (8/2/1) * C. intybus was imported from Europe. The leaves are edible as a salad green or pot-
herb, especially after blanching to reduce bitterness. The bitterness is useful as a digestive aid and liver stimulant. The
young roots are edible raw or cooked (Willard). They contain up to 58% inulin polysaccharides, favorable for diabetics
(Hobbs). Chicory is similar, but more mild than dandelion (see Taraxacum below) (Moore). The roots can be gently
roasted and ground for a coffee substitute (Harrington). Cafix® is a coffee substitute made with chicory roots. Roasting
converts the inulin into oxymethylfurfurol, the compound with the coffee-like aroma (Tyler).
Crepis—hawksbeard (200/22/9) The young leaves are edible as a potherb, (Olsen).
Glyptopleura—carveseed (2/2/0) Native to the southwest.
Hieracium—hawkweed, mouse ear (800/56/6) A tea of the plant is astringent and diuretic, used in the usual ways (Lust).
Lactuca—lettuce, prickly lettuce (100/13/5) * Prickly lettuce has a row of prickles down the midrib underneath the leaf.
Sowthistle (Sonchus) does not. Prickly lettuce is edible as a salad green or potherb. The leaves are extremely bitter at
times. Prickly lettuce is sometimes called “lettuce opium,” because the sap is reminiscent of the milky white latex from
the opium poppy. The sap does have a very mild analgesic effect, safe enough for children (Moore). It includes two
bitter principles, lactucin and lactucopicrin, which were shown to have a depressant effect on the nervous systems of
small animals. However, the bitter principles are very unstable, so commercial preparations are functionally useless
(Tyler). Cultivated leaf lettuce (L. sativa) also belongs to this genus.
Lapsana—nipplewort (1/1/1) L. communis. Introduced. The plant is minimally edible as a salad green or potherb (Sturtevant).
Iygodesmia—skeletonweed (7/7/2) * A tea of the plant is used to increase lactose production (Willard),
Matlacothrix—desert dandelion (22/14/1) Native to the western states.
Microseris—silverpuffs (14/14/4) The roots are edible (Sturtevant).
Prenanthes—rattlesnakeroot (15/15/1) A tea of the root is both astringent and bitter, used for diarrhea (Lust).
Prenanthella—brightwhite (1/1/0) P exigua. Native from Oregon to Texas.
Rafinesquia—plumeseed (2/2/0) Native to from Oregon to Texas.
Sonchus—sowthistle (70/5/4) * Introduced. Edible as a salad green or potherb. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West.
Stephanomeria—wirelettuce (17/17/1) Native to the western half of North America.
Taraxacum—dandelion (70/9/5) * Dandelion leaves and roots are rich in vitamins A, B, C, and E and the minerals iron,
phosphorus, potassium, and calcium (Hutchins). Dandelion greens are bitter, useful as a digestive aid. Many people
think the greens are too bitter to eat at first, but try a small amount mixed in with other greens. You can develop a taste
for them until they hardly seem bitter at all. Optionally, harvest them from shady locations for less bitterness. (Read
more in Foraging the Mountain West.) Roasting dandelion roots sweetens them by breaking the inulin polysaccharides
down into fructose (Hobbs). The roots make delicious coffee substitute, much like chicory roots (see above).
Medicinally, dandelion roots and leaves are most bitter in the spring, useful as adiuretic and stimulating to
the liver, spleen and kidneys. The plant is safe for long-term use, making it ideal for dissolving calcium stones (Moore).
Dandelions, especially the roots, are high in sodium, which is recommended for breaking down acid in the blood.
Dandelions may lower blood sugar, an aid for diabetics. The latex sap from the stems is used on warts (Willard).
Tragopogon—salsify, goatsbeard (45/5/3) Salsify produces edible, slightly bitter foliage and large edible roots. It is some-
times planted as a garden vegetable. It is a biennial, producing an edible root the first year which turns woody the
second year. The purple flowered species are best. The yellow flowered species are more fibrous and bitter (Tilford).
I once dug up a field mouse “cellar” with nearly two gallons of salsify and grass roots! Medicinally, salsify is used as a
diuretic and digestive stimulant (Lust).
164
Tragopogon \
pratensis \
orange ‘4
hawkweed %j
Hieracium
aurantiacum
false dandelion
Agoseris glaucum The "petals" (ray flowers)
often overlap to the center.
There are no disk flowers,7
Aster Family
Chicory/Dandelion Subfamily
LN Many species have

dandelion-like leaves:
field sowthistle
Sonchus arvensis
white rattlesnakeroot
Prenanthes alba
prickly lettuce
mouseear hawkweed }\ Lactuca serriola
Hieracium pilosella \
t
165
nodding
. 3 a
thistle
\\ Aster Family
cornflower Thistle Subfamily
blessed milkthistle Centaurea lesser burdock
Silybum marianum cyanus Arctium minus
Thistle Subfamily—Carduoideae
If you find an Aster with its head protected inside a tight wrapping of bracts like an artichoke, then it be-
longs to the Thistle or Artichoke subfamily of the Aster family. Most of these plants have at least some prickly parts,
especially the bracts around the flower heads. Aside from their spines, coarse texture, and fibrous nature, these plants
are otherwise edible and often used in bitters formulas to stimulate digestion. The artichoke belongs to the Cynara
genus. Teasel, of the family Dipsacaceae, could easily be mistaken for a thistle.
Arctium—burdock (6/6/2) * Introduced. Burdock is a biennial with an edible taproot. It is cultivated in Europe and Japan
(Harrington). Read more about harvesting and preparing burdock root in Foraging the Mountain West. In addition,
the big leaves are ideal for covering a steam pit to keep dirt out of the food. The burrs can be used as “Velcro®.” The
roots contain 45% inulin polysaccharides (Schauenberg). Burdock root is a very popular medicinal plant, especially
for facilitating liver function. It is bitter and diuretic in effect (Hobbs, Tilford).
Carduus—thistle (100/5/2) © Introduced. The flowerstalk of the nodding or musk thistle (C. nutans) is a favorite wild
snack, something like “wild celery,” after peeling away the spiny outer skin. Learn how in Foraging the Mountain West.
Centaurea—knapweed, starthistle, cornflower, bachelor’s buttons (500/27/8) * Most species were introduced and some are
invasive. Spotted knapweed (C. maculosa) covers more than 5 million acres just in Montana, often to the exclusion of
all other plants. The leaves and roots of many species of Centaurea are edible (Sturtevant). Medicinally, knapweed is
both bitter and astringent (Klein).
Cirsium—thistle (250/92/9) * Thistles are biennial; the roots are tender and edible the first year, turning woody and fibrous
the second year when the flower stalk forms. The bull thistle (C. vulgare) is especially delicious. The roots are crunchy
but good when raw, and even better cooked. The young leaves can be cooked as greens, effectively wilting the spines
(Kallas). Thistle roots and foliage contain electrolyte minerals and have an energizing effect when you are exercising
(Bigfoot). The stalk of the elk thistle (C. scariosum) is edible and delicious, much like Carduus above. Medicinally, the
plants are mildly bitter; some species are used in bitter formulas (Hobbs).
Onopordum—cotton thistle, scotch thistle (40/5/1) * Introduced. The roots are reasonably edible, just fibrous.
Silybum—milk thistle (2/1/0) S. marianum. Introduced from Europe. It is now found in the Atlantic and Pacific Coast
states. The young leaves are edible as a salad green or potherb. The young stalks are edible after peeling, soaking to
remove the bitterness and cooking. The root is also edible (Sturtevant).
Medicinally, milk thistle is used as a bitter to stimulate liver function. It also contains the flavonoid silyma-
rin, which has been shown to protect the liver from toxins. It has been given to patients who ingested toxic amanita
mushrooms. The silymarin molecules attach to the liver where the amanita toxins would normally attach, so the toxins
pass through the body harmlessly (Klein).
166
Mutisia Subfamily—Mutisioideae
The most distinctive feature of the Mutisia subfamily of the Aster
family is that the disk flowers are irregular. Look closely and you will see a
two-lipped flower with 2 petal lobes up and 3 petal lobes down. Also, the
blossoms have no outer ring of petals (the ray flowers). The flowers of this
subfamily are found in the southern states from coast to coast, but not in the
northern states.
Family
Aster
Acourtia—desertpeony (5/5/0) Native from California to Texas. Subfamily
Mutisia
Adenocaulon—trailplant (6/1/1) * A. bicolor. Native to moist forests of the
Pacific and northern states. Walking through the plants turns up the silvery
underside of the leaves, revealing an obvious trail. : woolly sunbonnets
Chaptalia tomentosa
Chaptalia—sunbonnets (68/5/0) Native from New Mexico to Virginia.
Gerbera—transvaal daisy (50/1/0) G. jamesonii. Introduced to Florida.
Trixis—threefold (65/2/0) Native from California to Texas.
Aster Subfamily—Asteroideae
The Aster Subfamily includes several tribes of genera, which are
more useful for identification than tribes of the other subfamilies:
Boneset Tribe—Eupatorieae
Members of the Boneset tribe are distinguished from other com-
posites by the shape of their stigmas, which are thickened at the ends like a
; baseball bat. It is a pretty nit-picky
Aster Family distinction, but then, this zs botany! Otherwise, the flowers lack an outer
Aster Subfamily | ring of petals (the ray flowers) and none of the blossoms are pure yellow.
Boneset Tribe These plants are most easily confused with the Ironweed tribe.
Brickellia—thoroughwort (100/12/3) ¢ Native throughout North America. A tea
shaggy blazing star of the leaves is reported to be useful for insulin-resistant diabetes (Bigfoot).
Liatris pilosa Eupatorium—Joe Pye weed, boneset (600/50/2) Boneset contains tannins and
bitters (Schauenberg). The hot tea has been used for centuries as a diaphoretic
to treat fevers, including dengue, also known as “breakbone fever,” from
which the plant gets its common name. This common name has led to some
confusion, so that some herbalists have recommend boneset to aid in knitting
broken bones. There is neither the history nor a scientific basis to support
that use. Boneset may act as a cathartic or emetic (Lust).
Liatris—gayfeather, blazing star (34/34/2) ¢ Native from the Rocky Mountains to
the Atlantic. In August, our place is covered san : ;
with the blossoms of dotted gayfeather (L.
punctata), one of my favorite flowers. Me-
dicinally, it is astringent and diuretic. The
roots are burned and the smoke inhaled for
headache, nosebleed, sore throat and tonsil
inflammation. A tea of the root is similarly
used for sore throat and laryngitis (Moore).
Ironweed Tribe— Vernonieae
Members of the Ironweed tribe can be
distinguished from the Bonesets and other composites by the shape of their stigmas,
which are long, thread-like and hairy. Similar to the Bonesets, there are no ray flowers
and virtually none of the blossoms are pure yellow. The Ironweeds are found in the
southern and eastern states, not in the Northwest nor the Rocky Mountains.
Vex
Elephantopus—elephant’s Foot (12/4/0) Native from Texas to New Jersey.
Carolina. é |New Vor irenweed
Stokesia—Stoke’s aster (1/1/0) S. laevis. Native from Louisiana to North
d (1,000/22 /0) Native from the Rocky Mountain s east to the Atlantic. Vernonia noveboracensis
Vernonia—ironwee
167
WH, papery, often

colored bracts
individual
flower
Aster Family
Aster Subfamily
Everlasting Tribe
Vf)YI \ Fs
stoloniferous pussytoes
~~. Antennaria dioica pearly everlasting
\
pO FRO - Anaphalis margaritacea |
Everlasting Tribe—Gnaphalieae
If you find a member of the Aster family with grayish vegetation and p
ing a flower with disk flowers, but no ray flowers then it is probably a membe
around the flowers are scarious, meaning thin, dry, and translucent. Note tha
have somewhat scarious bracts, but the Chamomiles have a strong odor, wher
Anaphalis—pearly everlasting (50/1/1) * A. margaritacea. A tea of the plant is pr

with expectorant properties. It is used in the expected ways: for colds, fevers, so
is inhaled to relieve headaches (Willard). Pearly everlasting has
a mildly antihistamine effect. It has been used in the treatment
of asthma (Tilford).
Antennaria—pussytoes (85/85/12) * Antennaria contains tannin,
volatile oils, resin and bitters (Schauenberg). It is astringent
and diuretic; the tea is used for liver inflammations and for
irritations of the upper intestines. As an astringent, it is useful
as a vaginal douche (Moore). It may act as a vasoconstrictor
and raise blood pressure (Lust).
Filago—cottonrose (45/2/0) Introduced to the East and West coastal
states and provinces of North America.
Gnaphalium—everlasting, cudweed (150/29/6) Gnaphalium is
astringent, diuretic and diaphoretic, used especially as a gargle
for sore throat; it is also smoked for headaches or used to expel
worms (Lust).
Elecampane Tribe—Jnuleae
The Elecampane tribe includes Old World plants, only a
elecampane
few of which have been introduced to North America. Inula helenium
Inula—elecampane (90/3/0) Introduced to the Pacific and north-
eastern states. Aster Family
Aster Subfamily
Elecampane Tribe
168
Aster Family
Aster Subfamily
Chamomile Tribe
ay
,
SAtte
common
\ Yi,
AS
ws
—
=.
Tanacetum
€
Artemisia absinthium vulgare
yarrow |! sy ; A oxeye daisy
Aline ee LN Pi / Leucanthemum vulgare
millefolium Gy oo
Chamomile Tribe—Anthemideae
The Chamomile tribe includes some of the most aromatic plants of the Aster family. The other distinguishing
characteristic is that the bracts surrounding the flowerhead are somewhat scarious, meaning thin, dry, and translucent
(which may be more apparent when fully dried). Note that the members of the Everlasting tribe also have scarious
bracts (much more translucent), but the plants lack the odor characteristic of the Chamomiles. If your specimen has
both the odor and the translucent bracts then it belongs with the Chamomiles.
Achillea—yarrow (100/5/2) ¢ The warrior Achilles used yarrow poultices stop bleeding (Hart). Yarrow is astringent, diuretic,
and diaphoretic. The tea can be taken to decrease menstruation, shrink hemorrhoids, or to stimulate sweating in a dry
fever (Moore). It will also speed up childbirth and aid in expelling the afterbirth. It is taken to ease the transition into
menopause (Willard). A little yarrow tincture on a tissue, stuffed up the nostril, will stop a bloody nose in seconds. My
grandmother always gave me yarrow tea with honey when I had a cold.
Anthemis—chamomile (110/8/1) Chamomile tea is useful as an antispasmodic and carminative for the digestive system or
as a mild sedative, especially for restless children. The flowers can be used in a rubbing oil on painful joints (Lust). It
is also used for migraine headaches (Schauenberg).
Artemisia—sagebrush, wormwood, tarragon (250/100/19) * Some species are used as a smudge for purification before
entering sweat lodges and other ceremonial events. Artemisia contains potent volatile oils, some tannins, and a bitter
substance. Medicinally, the bitter tea acts as a digestive aid, but the volatile oils in some species can lead to permanent
nervous disorders with prolonged use (Schauenberg). The Artemisias are useful as a menstrual stimulant and as a ver-
mifuge. Some species of Artemisia can decrease the effects of rancid fats (called lipid peroxides, such as in old donuts,
etc.) on the liver (Moore). Tarragon (A. dracunculus and A. drancunculoides) is the culinary spice used in tartar sauce,
hollandaise, and bé arnaise. But don’t mistake sagebrush for culinary sage, which belongs to the Mint family.
Chrysanthemum—chrysanthemum, mums, daisy (30/2/0) * The arctic daisy (C. arcticum) is native to Canada.
Leucanthemum—oxeye daisy (70/4/1) * Formerly included in Chrysanthemum. Imported from Europe. The leaves are edible.
Matricaria (including Tripleurospermum)—mayweed, pineapple weed (50/4/1) * Pineapple weed (M. discoidea ot M. mat-
ricarioides) is a sweet-smelling herb often found in lawns and driveways. The fresh plant is edible. It is an excellent tea,
similar to, but milder than chamomile. It is listed as diaphoretic, antispasmodic, stimulant, and sedative. It is a mild
remedy—safe for children—used for stomach pains, colds, fevers, and as a menstrual stimulant (Hutchins).
Tanacetum—tansy (160/7/3) © T. vulgare was introduced as a medicinal herb. It is now an invasive weed in many states.
It contains a bitter principle (Densmore), plus resins, volatile oils, tannic and gallic acids, gums, lime- and lead-oxide.
In small doses, the tea is used as a diaphoretic and emmenagogue. In large doses it can cause convulsions, vomiting,
reduced heart function and coma (Hutchins). Some individuals have died using oil of tansy to cause abortions.
169
Aster Family
Arctic butterbur Texas ragwort Aster Subfami ly
poe sa Petasites frigidus Senecio ampullaceus Groundsel Tribe Tussilago farfara
Groundsel Tribe—Senecioneae
Many members of the Aster family grow a pappus or tuft of white hair around each of the little flowers inside
the larger head. The Groundsels are distinguished from other Asters by the soft, silky quality of the pappus hair. The
hair is usually pure white and very abundant. Note that Arnica has been moved to the Sunflower tribe.
Petasites—butterbur, coltsfoot (17/3/1) Coltsfoot leaves and stems are edible as potherbs. The plant has a salty flavor and
may be used as a salt substitute. Medicinally, coltsfoot has been used for centuries as an expectorant and cough suppres-
sant for everything from chest colds to pneumonia. However, the plant contains potentially dangerous pyrrolizidine
alkaloids (Tilford). Read more in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Senecio—groundsel, ragwort (1500/120/24) * Groundsels are diuretic, as-
tringent and diaphoretic (Hutchins). In larger quantities the plants may
be emetic or purgative (strongly laxative) (Willard). The plants contain
pytrolizidine alkaloids, which can damage the liver. The common name
“ragwort’ is also applied to some genera in the Sunflower tribe.
Tussilago—coltsfoot (1/1/0) T.farfara. Introduced. Tussilago and Petasites are
closely related, and appear to share similar properties and uses.
Marigold Tribe— Tageteae

Most genera of the Marigold tribe are native to the highlands of
Mexico, with only a few genera found as far north as our southwestern
states. Some are fragrant or pungent.
Adenophyllum—dogweed (10/4/0) Native from California to New Mexico.
Nicolletia—hole-in-the-sand plant (3/2/0) Native to the Mojave Desert.
There is often a hole in the sand around the base of the plant.
Pectis—chinchweed (85/18/0) Native from California to Florida. Lemonscent
chinchweed (P angustifolia) is aromatic.
Porophyllum—potreleaf (30/5/0) Native from California to Texas. The leaf
Mexican marigold surface has aromatic oil glands, and the leaves are often used as a spice.
Tagetes erecta Tagetes—marigold (56/6/0) * Several species are widely cultivated, includ-
ing the Mexican marigold (7° erecta). The wild licorice marigold (T
micrantha) is native from Arizona to Texas.
170
Aster Family
Aster Subfamily
Sunflower Tribe
prairie
coneflower
Ratibida
blackeyed e :
columnifera
Susan 4
Rudbeckia
hirta
purple
coneflower
Echinacea
a mountain arnica purpurea
! Arnica montana
Sunflower Tribe—Heliantheae (including Ragweeds)
Pull apart a flowerhead from your sample plant and look for a small bract attached at the base of each disk
flower. The Sunflower and Tickseed tribes often have them, while other tribes usually don't. In addition, most mem-
bers of the Sunflower tribe are noticeably resinous. Taste or smell any part of a sunflower head and you will notice
the pitchy quality. Resins are useful as expectorants to help clear out mucous after a cold. Read more about resins in
the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
Taxonomists now include the former Ragweed tribe as part of the Sunflower tribe, yet to the layperson, the
flowers seem distinctly different. Ragweed flowers are usually unisexual, with male and female flowers appearing sepa-
rately on one plant, an oddity within the Aster family. It would be easy to confuse Ambrosia and Iva with the “green
globby flowers” of the Amaranth/Goosefoot family. The cocklebur is the most noticeable member of the Ragweed
tribe. Its sharp cockleburs, a “composite” of two female flowers, are often underfoot along lakes and streams across
the West. Note the cross-section of the bur on the next page, showing two mature seeds inside.
Arnica—atnica (32/28/14) * Formerly in the Groundsel tribe. The plant and

flowers are used externally as a poultice, tea, tincture, oil, or salve to treat
bruises, arthritis, and other inflammations (Moore). Arnica stimulates
and dilates blood vessels near the surface, improving circulation to the
injured area. In rare cases it causes severe dermatitis (Moore). Arnica may
be used as a mouth rinse to treat a sore throat, or taken in small doses
to treat bruises and inflammations from the inside—but only if you
are otherwise physically strong and healthy (Moore). Arnica contains
sesquiterpene lactone (Tyler). It is toxic to the heart and can significantly
raise blood pressure (Tyler). It has put children in comas (Kinucan).
Balsamorhiza—atrowleaf balsamroot (12/11/3) * The very young leaves are —_aghy sunflower
edible as they emerge from the ground in spring (before they unfold). Helianthus mollis
Fry them in grease. Palatability varies by region and/or species. The
young root is also supposedly good raw, boiled, or prepared in any other
way (Willard) or when cooked in a steam pit for three days (Hart). In
my limited experience, even young roots are too fibrous to eat. The
seeds are edible (Willard).
The root has thick, resinous bark. A tea of this bark coats
the throat with the sticky resins, soothing a sore throat and acting as
an expectorant. The root bark also contains volatile oils, useful as a
h/1
ay sumpweed
‘SS iva xanthifolia
4 vs
< Sy
( +a
common si
cocklebur
Ragweeds of the
ees: beh/ great ragweed
Sunflower Tribe
5 ae. Ambrosia trifida
diaphoretic. Balsamroot has immunostimulating properties similar to Echinacea, but not as potent (Tilford).
Chaenactis—Dusty Maiden (18/18/1) * Native to the West. A tea of the plant is used as a fever medicine for children, but
it may act as a sedative on the heart (Murphey).
Echinacea—purple coneflower (7/7/1) * Native east of the Rocky Mountains. Echinacea plants and roots are used in many
commercially available products to stimulate the immune system to prevent or fight off a cold. It is most useful for
“surface” conditions like the common cold, while other herbs are more appropriate for deep immune system deficiencies
(Hobbs). I got hooked on the wonders of Echinacea after trading copies of this book for some tincture. In addition to
other measures (reduced dairy and sugar intake), the Echinacea helped me get through an entire winter without suc-
cumbing to the flu. Unfortunately, the herb has been seriously overharvested in the wild. Please purchase only formulas
made with cultivated Echinacea. It is also considered highly effective for candidiasis and vaginal yeast infections (Hobbs).
Galinsoga—soldierweed (3/2/1) Introduced. Widespread throughout North America.
Helianthus—sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, sun tubers (100/50/5) * All sunflowers produce edible seeds that are high in
oil. I often eat them shells and all, which is easier than trying to extract the tiny seeds. The common wild sunflower
(H. annus) often produce dozens of little flowerheads per plant. This native was shipped to Europe and then Russia,
where it was bred to develop a single big head with big seeds (Hutchins). Wild sunflowers can be harvested with a
seed beater and ground on a metate for use as mush (Olsen). The seeds are rich in phosphorus, calcium, iron, fluorine,
iodine, potassium, magnesium, sodium, thiamin (vitamin B), niacin, vitamin D, and protein (Hutchins). The plants
and flowerheads are quite resinous, often used for coughs, kidneys, and rheumatism (Willard).
Jerusalem artichoke (H. tuberosus) is a perennial sunflower often cultivated for its starchy, potato-like tubers.
This common name is quizzical, since the plant is a native of eastern North America, not Jerusalem, and it doesn’t look
anything like an artichoke! Sun tubers seems like a better name. The tubers are high in inulin polysaccharides, good
for diabetics (Gibbons). They are delicious boiled like potatoes, and even better the following day, after more of the
inulin has converted to fructose. :
Madia—tarweed (11/11/3) * I always smell tarweed before I see it. The odor is powerfully resinous, but also almost sweet.
I like to put a stem on the dashboard of the car for fragrance, but usually have to keep the windows open to breathe!
The seeds are extremely rich in oil, used in cooking (Sturtevant).
Ratibida—prairie coneflower (6/4/1) * The roots are mildly diuretic. The plant may have qualities similar to Echinacea.
Rudbeckia—coneflower (30/24/2) ¢ A tea of the root or leaves is a stimulating diuretic and a mild cardiac stimulant (Moore).
Viguiera—goldeneye (150/11/1) Native from California to Texas.
Wyethia—Mule’s Ears (11/10/2) * The seeds are edible. The root of W. helianthoides is edible after extensive cooking (Olsen).
The poultice is used for rheumatism (Murphey).
Ragweeds now in the Sunflower Tribe:

Ambrosia (including Franseria)—tagweed (50/25/3) A tea of the plant was used by the Cheyenne as an antispasmodic and
astringent for bowel cramps and bloody stools (Vogel). It is also used for menstrual cramps, but excess consumption
can lead to nausea (Bigfoot). A tea of the leaves is bitter, useful especially for relief from allergies (Bigfoot).
Iva—false ragweed, giant pigweed (15/10/2) * Widespread across North America.
Xanthium—cocklebur (5/2/2) * The prickly cockleburs are the bane of every barefoot river rat. Medicinally, the seeds are a
potent diuretic and astringent, with analgesic and antispasmodic effects. Excessive consumption can be toxic (Moore).
172
Tickseed. Tribe—Coreopsideae
Plants of the Tickseed tribe are closely
Aster Family
related to the Sunflower tribe and share some over- Aster Subfamily
lapping characteristics for identification. However, Tickseed Tribe
4
members of the Tickseed tribe are not resinous like
those of the Sunflower tribe.
Bidens—beggarstick (200/26/4) © B. alba is con-
sidered edible and delicious as a potherb. A tea
or tincture of some species is used for irrita-
tion, inflammation, pain, and bleeding of the
urinary tract mucosa (Moore). The common
name “beggarstick” also applies to hounds-
tongue (Cynoglossum) of the Borage family.
Coreopsis—tickseed (35/35/1) * Native throughout
North America, except for the Great Basin.
Cosmos—cosmos (20/4/0) * Native and introduced
species are found primarily in the southern
and eastern half of North America. Garden
cosmos (C. bipinnatus) are widely cultivated. golden tickseed
Thelesperma—cota, greenthread, Navajo tea Coreopsis tinctoria
(13/13/1) Native to the western two-thirds
of North America. Cota is mildly diuretic. It
is a popular tea where it is abundant in the
Southwest (Moore).
Sneezeweed Tribe—Helenieae
Most Sneezeweeds have only one row of bracts beneath the flowerhead, and none have more than three rows.
Also, the Sneezeweeds often have glands or dots of resin on the leaves.
Eriophyllum—woolly sunflower (14/11/1) Native to western North America.

Gaillardia—blanket flower, brown-eyed Susan (15/12/1) ¢ Native throughout North America. Gaillardia is apparently
astringent (Willard).
Helenium—sneezeweed (40/20/1) ¢ Native throughout North America. The crushed blossoms are used as an inhalant for
hay fever (Murphey).
Hulsea—alpinegold (7/7/1) Native from the Pacific Coast to the Rocky Mountains.
Hymenopappus—woollywhite (11/10/1) Native to western and southern North America.
Hymenoxys—tubberweed (28/22/4) The root contains a latex that may be used as chewing gum. It is a potential source for
commercial rubber (Fern), but the vegetation may be toxic to sheep. .
sneezeweed
California rubberweed
/ Helenium
Hymenoxys californica
autumnale
Eriophyllum Aster Family

lanatum
Aster Subfamily
Sneezeweed Tribe Gaillardia pulchella
We
x any
\* GH,
goldenaster
ee. Ata
Heterotheca he
AV :
gossypina fi
(Chrysopsis
gossypina)
ve, |
(7
4A”
Canada goldenrod 4
Solidago canadensis
curlycup
gumweed
Grindelia
squarrosa
Aster Family
Aster Subfamily
Aster Tribe
alpine aster
Aster alpinus
lawn daisy
Bellis perennis
blue hill daisy
Erigeron pulchellus
Aster Tribe—Astereae
Plants of the Aster tribe often have a great many very slender ray flowers. Also, turn the flowerhead over
and look at the back. Members of the Aster tribe often have multiple layers of bracts of unequal length. Based on its
resinous properties, gumweed (Grindelia) seems like it should be part of the Sunflower tribe.
Aster—aster (600/2/0) Most North American asters have been reclassified as Symphyotrichum and several other genera.
Baccharis—seepwillow (400/24/0) * The stalks make excellent drills for handdrill fire sets. (See Participating in Nature.)
Bellis—daisy (10/1/1) B. perennis. Introduced from Europe. The tea is used as a digestive aid, antispasmodic, laxative,
expectorant and demulcent (Lust). The leaves can be cooked as a potherb (Sturtevant).
Chrysopsis—goldenaster (11/11/0) Many species were reclassified as Heterotheca. The rest are native to the southeastern states.
Chrysothamnus—tabbitbrush (16/14/2) * The young shoots are edible. The latex can be chewed as gum (Olsen).
Erigeron—fleabane daisy (250/140/30) * The fleabanes are astringent and diuretic, useful in conventional ways (Willard).
E. canadensis is known to contain a volatile oil (Densmore).
Grindelia—gumweed (50/33/2) * Grindelia is rich in amorphous resins, tannic acid, volatile oils, and contains the alkaloid
grindeline (Hart). A tea of the plant or flowers has expectorant properties, probably due to the resins. It is principally
used for lung ailments such as coughing, asthma, and bronchitis. A poultice ofthe plant is used as a stimulant to bring
healing to rheumatism, sores, and rashes (Willard). It is also used as a diuretic (Hutchins). Gumweed may absorb
selenium from the soil (Lust).
Gutierrezia—snakeweed (25/10/1) A tea of the plant is used in a bath to reduce inflammation from arthritis and rheuma-
tism. It is safe for repeated, long-term use. The tea is also used to decrease menstruation (Moore).
Solidago—goldenrod (100/90/11) * Goldenrod seeds are edible as mush or as a stew thickener (Olsen). The young greens
are edible as a potherb. The dried flowers make a pleasant tea. Goldenrod contains saponins, tannins, bitters, flavonoids,
and a volatile oil (Schauenberg). The dried, powdered plant was once used to stop bleeding on battlefields (Tilford).
Townsendia—Townsend’s daisies (26/26/9) These are tightly clustered flowers close to the ground, named after a botanist.
174
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Teasel > Family: Teasel
Teasel Family—Dipsacaceae
Teasel flowerheads could easily be mistaken for
those of the Aster family. The individual flowers are bisexual
and slightly irregular, clustered in a dense head, and often
protected by spiky bracts (modified leaves). There are 5
sepals and 4 or 5 united petals, plus 4 stamens. The ovary is
positioned inferior and consists of 2 united carpels (bicarpel-
late), but aborts one, forming just 1 chamber. It produces Fuller's
teasel
a dry seed (an achene) enclosed in a sac. Worldwide, there Dipsacus
are about 12 genera and 350 species. fullonum
Key Words: Aster-like blossoms

with slightly irregular flowers.
Dipsacus—teasel (15/2/1) * Introduced and widespread
across North America. Usually found in moist soil.
Teasel superficially resembles a thistle. The spiky flow-
erheads were once used to raise the nap on new woolen
blue buttons
textiles, a process called “teasing” or “fulling” the cloth
Knautia arvensis ®
(Baumgardt). The upper leaves of the teasel have evolved (a.k.a. Scabiosa arvensis)
to catch water and drown insects. The nutrients are
absorbed as the bodies naturally decompose (Verrill). Medicinally, teasel is a gentle herb that promotes circulation,
tones the liver and kidneys, and strengthens the bones and tendons. As a tonic, it can cure chronic conditions associ-
ated with arthritis and stiff or sore muscles, including potentially lyme disease (Storl)
Knautia—blue buttons (40/1/1) * K. arvensis. Introduced. The plant contains tannic acid and bitter principles (Schauen-
berg). A tea of the plant or roots is used externally as a wash for cuts, burns, and bruises, internally as a “blood purifier.”
Scabiosa—pincushion flower (80/4/0) Some species have pretty flowers like Knautia com-
bined with spiky bracts like Dipsacus.
Valerian Family— Valerianaceae

North American members of this family have small flowers in clusters.
The flowers can be bisexual or unisexual, regular or slightly irregular. The sepals
are inconspicuous. There are 5 united petals, often with a spur at the base of the
flower. There are 1 to 4 stamens. The ovary is positioned inferior and consists of 3
united carpels (tricarpellate) but aborts two, forming just 1 chamber. It produces
an achene (a dry seed). Worldwide, there are 13 genera and 400 species. North
American genera are listed below. Red valerian (Centranthus) is cultivated.
Key Words: Plants with basal and opposite leaves.

Small flowers with tiny spurs. Roots with pungent aroma.
Plectritis—seablush (15/3/1) Native from the Pacific Coast to the Rocky Mountains.
Valeriana—valerian, tobacco root (250/19/5) ¢ I live near the Tobacco Root Mountains,
which are named after this plant. V. edulis (Harrington) and V. obovata (Craighead)
produce large, edible roots. These are traditionally cooked in a steam pit for two days
prior to being eaten. The two species in the Tobacco Root Mountains have small,
inedible roots. The roots of all valerians have a characteristic “dirty sock smell,” due
to the presence of isovaleric acid. Many people consider the odor repelling. -
Valerian is a popular sedative, but it is not related to Valium®. Valerian sedates the
central nervous system, but stimulates digestion and the cardiovascular system. About
one in five people react to valerian as a stimulant rather than a sedative. Long-term use
marsh valerian can result in depression (Moore). Author Robyn Klein told of driving down the road
Valeniana dioica with freshly-dug valerian roots in the front seat. The roots became very aromatic in
the sun, until she grew so tired she had to pull off the road and sleep for two hours!
Valerianella—cornsalad (60/14/0) As the name implies, the plant is edible (Cook).
Valerian Family
6)
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Teasel > Families: Honeysuckle and Adoxa
Honeysuckle Family—Caprifoliaceae
If you find a bush with opposite leaves and pithy stems (what looks like Styrofoam® in the core), then it
may be a member of the Honeysuckle family or the closely related Adoxa family. Many genera also have flowers and
berries in pairs. The flowers are regular, except for some species of Lonicera. The bisexual flowers include 5 usually
united sepals (sometimes very small), plus 5 united petals and usually 5 stamens (sometimes 4 of each). The ovary ©
is positioned inferior and consists of 2, 3, 5, or 8 united carpels with the partition walls either present or absent. It
matures as a fleshy berry or sometimes a drupe, a fleshy fruit with a stony pit. The remains of the sepals can be seen
attached to the fruit. Worldwide, there are about 15 genera and 400 species between the two families. Many genera
are cultivated as ornamentals. The genera below are native to North America. This is a chemically complex family.
Many species produce minimally palatable fruits. Some species contain toxic alkaloids in the seeds or vegetation.
Key Words:
Bushes with opposite leaves and flowers/berries usually paired or in clusters. Pithy stems.
Linnaea—twinflower (1/1/1) * L. borealis, The plant or berries might be edible. The plant has been used as a tonic for
pregnancy and for painful or difficult menstruation (Fern). It is sometimes segregated into its own family, Linnaeaceae.
Lonicera—honeysuckle (180/50/4) * Honeysuckle berries are edible, but usually very bitter. A frost may improve their flavor
(Willard). A European species may be poisonous. The bark and leaves contain bitter principles with emetic properties
(Schauenberg). The plant is also used as an expectorant and laxative (Kadans).
Symphoricarpos—snowberry (15/12/4) * The leaves, bark and berries have astringent properties; the poultice is used for
wounds, and the tea as an eye wash (Hart). The berries contain saponins, and may be used as a soap substitute or fish
poison (Fern). The berries are considered emetic (Willard), probably due to the taste of the saponins.
Triosteum—feverwort (8/3/0) Native to the eastern two-thirds of North America. A tea of the leaves is used as a diaphoretic
to bring down a fever, hence the common name. A ‘tea of the roots contains an alkaloid; it is considered diuretic and
cathartic. In addition to urinary disorders, it is used for menstrual disorders and constipation. A poultice of the root
is used on snakebites and sores (Fern).
Adoxa Family—Adoxaceae
Several genera previously classified within the Honeysuckle family have been segregated out into the new
Adoxa family. These genera do not usually have flowers in pairs.
Adoxa—moschatel (1/1/1) A. moschatellina. Native across Canada, and down through the Rocky Mountains. The plant
and flowers emit a musk-like scent when the dew falls in the evening.
Sambucus—elderberry (25/3/3) * The botanical and common names for North American elderberries are highly confusing.
There are basically two species, plus a number of subspecies, but much disagreement about what to call them. Our blue
elderberry (S. cerulean) is sometimes classified as a subspecies of the European black elderberry (S. nigra), while other
botanists classify it as S. mexicana. And our common black elderberry, widespread at high elevations the mountain
West, is actually considered a variety of the red elderberry (S. racemosa). Thus, our blue elderberry might be a black
one and our black one is actually a red one! Elderberries are easy to gather in abundance. The light-blue berries seem
to be the sweetest. The flowers can be batter-fried. Read more about harvesting, processing, and eating elderberries in
Foraging the Mountain West.
Elderberry extract is an effective remedy for the flu. A property of the elderberries reportedly binds to the
“spikes” on the flu virus, preventing it from penetrating and entering body cells. A clinical trial with an elderberry
extract called “Sambucol” revealed that 90% of a flu-infected group fully recovered after three days, while most indi-
viduals in the control group needed six days to recover (Eliman). The seeds of all elderberries contain a bitter form of
cyanide called sambucin, which may cause nausea and diarrhea if eaten in large enough amounts (Hutchins). Cyanide
and sambucin are also present in the leaves and bark (Moore). Elderberry stems are useful for bowdrill and handdrill
fire sets, as well as for making flutes, but note that the stems may be toxic until dried.
_Viburnum—highbush cranberry, snowball tree, black haw, nannyberry (120/27/3) * Native and introduced species are
found throughout North America, except for the Southwest. The true cranberry is a member of the Heath family.
Viburnum berries are edible but bitter. A frost may improve them. Cook the berries with sugar and strain out the big
seeds (Hall). Medicinally, the bark contains isovalerianic acid (like Valerian) and simple phenol glycosides (Densmore,
Geller, Schauenberg). It is used for its antispasmodic, nervine, astringent and diuretic properties. The boiled tea is
recommended for the last two to three months of a pregnancy to eliminate nervousness and cramps (Willard).
176
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Teasel > Family: Honeysuckle
western trumpet bracted honeysuckle

honeysuckle j Ee Lonicera involucrata
Lonicera ciliosa
fly honeysuckle
Lonicera canadensis
Patterns of the
Honeysuckle Family
Plants of the Honeysuckle family usually
have opposite leaves and pithy stems.
The flowers and fruits often form in pairs.
Those that are in clusters are sometimes
in pairs within the bunches.
twinflower
Linnaea
borealis ~——— 5 small sepals
5 united petals
5 stamens
ae
common snowberry
Symphoricarpos racemosus
moschatel
Adoxa
moschatellina
black elderberry
Sambucus nigra
highbush cranberry
Viburnum opulus.
K77
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Parsley > Family: Ginseng
Ginseng Family—Araliaceae
The next time you see a building covered with ivy (Hedera), stop and notice the umbels of flowers or berries. Note
that they form single umbels, not compound like the closely related Parsley family. The small, greenish-white flowers are
regular and may be either unisexual or bisexual. There are 5 small, separate sepals, 5 (sometimes 4 or 10) separate petals
and usually 5 (sometimes 3 to numerous) stamens. The stamens are alternate with the petals. The ovary is positioned
ae bs ganas: yy flowers/fruits form P atter ns of the
o oe Hi eh.J — in distinctive umbels. Ginseng Family
united Carpels W1 LSX.
the partition walls ay 4 ‘ie (o>

present, forming
an equal number ss Nps F Pe WA a - ey: with ,
of chambers. It va to 5 ih
matures as a red or
purple berry with
one seed per car-
pel. The fruit splits
apart at the carpels
in some species.
Note that some
species produce
flowers and berries
in dense heads or
elongated spikes.
The plants of this
family prefer moist
environments. bristly sarsaparilla _
World- Aralia hispida
American ginseng
wide, there are Panax quinquefolius
about 70 genera
and 700 species.
North American genera are listed below. Volatile oils are common in the Ginseng family; they are useful as diaphoret-
ics to stimulate sweating. English ivy (Hedera helix) also contains volatile oils and bitters. It has been used externally
to treat dermatitis, inflammations, and burns, or internally to expel parasites and to treat gout, rheumatism, and
bronchitis. Caution is advised since the plant is mildly toxic, probably due to the triterpene saponins. Schefflera is a
common houseplant. Note that ginger (Zingiber) belongs to an unrelated family, Zingiberaceae.
Key Words: Plants of moist forests with umbels (not compound) and berries.
Aralia—wild sarsaparilla, spikenard (30/4/1) * Found in moist forests throughout North America. It is considered a substitute
for the true sarsaparilla (Smilax of the Greenbrier family) and either may be used for flavoring root beer. Medicinally,
wild sarsaparilla contains an acrid resin (Densmore). It is diaphoretic and stimulant. It also has demulcent properties
(Willard). A tea of the root is commonly used for colds and coughing, even pneumonia. This plant can also stimulate
menstruation, if it has been delayed by health stress (Moore). A poultice of the root is used on burns, sores, ringworm
and skin eruptions. It is also used for intestinal gas, and is reportedly a strong antidote for deadly poisons (Willard).
Oplopanax—devil’s club (3/1/1) * O. horridus. Native to the Pacific northwest. Devil’s club is used similarly to Aralia, as a
respiratory stimulant and expectorant for chest colds. It also has a history of use as a hypoglycemic agent to lower blood
sugar and reduce or eliminate the need for injected insulin in cases of adult-onset diabetes. A poultice of the root has
analgesic properties. A tea and bath of the root is used for rheumatism and arthritis (Willard). Herbalist Keith Hess
reported that the cut stalks will often take root and grow when inserted into moist ground.
Panax—ginseng (6/2/0) Native from the Midwest to the Atlantic. Ginseng is rich in volatile oils, used especially as a dia-
phoretic, but also to counteract nausea and the double vision that can accompany dizziness (Kadans).
178
Clade: Eudicots / Asterids > Order: Parsley > Family: Parsley
Patterns of the
Parsley Family
: f
SOY). Gatntaetd N Ny
VR
SNE
WD, er) j
a.
Weis
eu i WY ie
Tie
t FE ‘a
cutleaf
ly each carpel water parsnip
produces KX Berula erecta
water hemlock 1 seed
Cicuta maculata
Parsley Family—Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Key Words: Compound umbels. Usually hollow flower stalks.
The Parsley family is as familiar as carrots and parsley. Members of the Parsley family are mostly herbs (rarely
shrubs or trees), usually with hollow stems and pinnate leaves. The best pattern for identification is the compound
umbels. Notice that all stems of the flower cluster radiate from a single point at the end of the stalk, like an umbrella,
or “umbel.” At the end of each flower stem there is another umbel of smaller stems, making a compound umbel.
Looking closer, the little flowers have 5 sepals (small and underneath), plus 5 petals and 5 stamens. The ovary is posi-
tioned inferior. It consists of 2 united carpels, as indicated by the number of styles. Partition walls are present, forming
an equal number of chambers. The ovary matures as a schizocarp, a dry fruit that splits into individual one-seeded
carpels (mericarps) when dry. Some members of the Buckwheat family also have umbels and compound umbels.
Worldwide, there are about 434 genera and 3,700 species. About 75 genera are native to North America.
Most members of the Parsley family are rich with spicy, aromatic volatile oils. Spices from the family include: anise
(Pimpinella), celery (Apium), chervil (Anthriscus), coriander or cilantro (Cortandrum), caraway (Carum), cumin (Cumi-
num), dill (Anethum), fennel (Foeniculum), and parsley (Petroselinum). There are also a number of edible roots in the
family, including the carrot (Daucus) and parsnip (Pastinaca). Caution: the Parsley family also includes some of the
most deadly plants in North America, especially hemlock (Conium) and water hemlock (Cicuta). Many people have
died after confusing hemlock with wild carrots. When you see the compound umbel, let it be your warning—you
must get positive identification of these plants!
Medicinally, the Parsley family is rich in volatile oils. Spicy and stimulating, volatile oils warm the body,
open the pores, and encourage sweating. This diaphoretic property is useful to help break a fever. A fever is the body’s
way of “cooking” the microorganisms that cause infections. Spicy teas and food can help raise a mild fever just high
enough to “cook” a virus, thus ending the fever. However, diaphoretics can be dangerous where there is already a high
fever; other compounds, such as aspirin, should be used to reduce the fever. Diaphoretics tend to be most effective
if used at the very onset of a cold. Volatile oils also have a decongestant effect, as you'll notice when your nose runs
after a spicy meal. Intensely diaphoretic plants are often antiviral as well and may even help with venereal diseases.
Aromatic plants are also used as carminatives to expel gas. Some members of this family stimulate menstrua-
tion (an emmenagogue) and relieve menstrual cramps. They are sometimes used in conjunction with childbirth, but
may be dangerous during a pregnancy. Celery contains furanocoumarins. The juice on the skin can cause dermatitis
when exposed to sunlight.
179
Edible, Medicinal, and Poisonous Plants in the Parsley Family

Angelica—angelica, dong quai (50/21/4) * Widespread in North America, except the Great Plains. The leaves of some species
resemble water hemlock leaves. The peeled, boiled roots of Norwegian angelica (A. archangelica) are edible (Brown),
but most species of Angelica are strongly medicinal. The roots and seeds are diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, and
carminative. In traditional Chinese medicine, dong quai (A. sinensis and A. polymorpha) is recommended for painful
menstruation, to relieve cramps, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), irregular menstrual cycles, infrequent periods, and
menopausal symptoms. However, Angelica is not recommended for people of “weak constitution” (Hobbs).
Berula—creeping water parsnip (1/1/1) B. erecta, Native from the Pacific to the Mississippi. It may be poisonous (Pammel).
Bupleurum—thorowax (180/3/1) Several species of Bupleurum are used in Chinese medicine. The root is bitter and slightly
acrid. It is used to restore normal liver function, especially in patients with hepatitis (Hobbs).
Carum—caraway (25/1/1) * C. carvi. Introduced. Caraway is a cultivated herb and spice, often naturalized into the coun-
tryside. Medicinally, it is antispasmodic, carminative, and stimulating to digestion, menstruation, lactose production
and as an expectorant. The leaves and roots are edible. Some species have bigger roots than others (Sturtevant).
Cicuta—water hemlock (4/4/3) * Water hemlock is the deadliest plant in North America, often mistaken for a wild carrot.
The whole plant is toxic, with the highest concentrations in the roots and the base of the stalks (Harrington). It affects
the central nervous system, causing convulsions and quick death. Some victims chew their tongues to shreds.
Conium—poison hemlock (2/1/1) * C. maculatum. Poison hemlock is less poisonous than Cicuta, but not by much. The
Most toxic parts are in the leaves and stems. A potent infusion of hemlock was used to execute Socrates (Lust). It causes
paralysis rather than convulsions (Harrington).
Cymopterus—springparsley (50/35/5) Springparsleys resemble biscuitroots (Lomatium). The roots, leaves, and flowers are
edible (Sweet). The seeds are used as a digestive aid. The leaves are used to help urinary infections (Moore).
Daucus—carrot, Queen Anne’s lace (60/2/1) * Cultivated carrots were bred from the Eurasian wild carrot (D. carota), which
has a pale, usually stringy taproot. It is now widespread across North America. The American wild carrot (D. pusillus)
is native to the Pacific coast and southern states. The leaves and seeds of either carrot may be used as a spice. The roots
are often woody, but otherwise edible. ;
Heracleum—cow parsnip (60/2/1) * Cow parsnip contains a potent volatile oil (Densmore) and a furanocoumarin (Schauen-
berg). The young stalks are minimally edible. The roots and seeds are antispasmodic, carminative, and expectorant
(Willard). A tea of the root is good for nausea, gas and indigestion. The fresh root is acrid and should be dried prior to
use. A bath, poultice, or tea of the fresh root is used to treat paralysis (Moore, Willard). The mature, green seeds have
an analgesic effect on the teeth and gums (Tilford).
Ligusticum—osha, lovage (25/11/5) * The seeds and leaves are dried and used as spice. The root is chewed as a potent
diaphoretic, anesthetic, bitter, and expectorant. Osha is a popular and effective herb, particularly favored for viral infec-
tions (Moore). The different species vary in form, but memorize the smell of the root as a good aid for identification.
Lomatium—biscuitroot (80/78/11) * Native from the Pacific to the Mississippi. Individual species vary significantly, and
may resemble other parsleys. Some biscuitroots are strongly medicinal, while others are tasty and easy to harvest. A
one-hour harvest of L. cous-cous in the Pryor Mountains of south-central Montana yielded a quart of delicious, starchy
roots. Washing and peeling took an additional two hours. Medicinally, L. dissectum is valued for its antiviral properties,
especially for respiratory infections like the flu or pneumonia, as well as tonsillitis and pharyngitis (Klein).
Orogenia—Indian potato (2/2/1) * The roots are edible raw or cooked (Craighead, Harrington). Author Larry Olsen con-
siders it one of the tastiest foods in the West.
Osmorhiza—sweet cicely (10/8/5) * Sweet cicely root has a powerful anise-like aroma. The intensity varies by species. Most
people like the smell, but some find it intensely repelling. I have used a tea of the root to flavor cookies.’ Medicinally,
the root has antiviral, expectorant, and mildly laxative properties (Willard). It is listed as carminative, expectorant and
a digestive stimulant (Lust). Sweet cicely may help to balance the blood sugar, while also inhibiting fungal infections
of the digestive and reproductive systems (Tilford).
Pastinaca—parsnip (14/1/1) * P sativa. Introduced from Europe. The roots are edible and delicious, either raw or cooked.
The green plant contains furanocoumarins and may cause dermatitis on contact with sweaty skin (Pammel).
Perideridia—Yampa (13/13/1) * Yampa is one of my favorite wild edibles. I like to nibble on the flowers or seeds on moun-
tain hikes. The roots are okay raw, but delicious cooked. Read more in Foraging the Mountain West. The seeds can be
used as seasoning (Willard). Medicinally, eating the seeds is good for indigestion (Sweet).
Sanicula—sanicle (40/17/1) It contains saponins, tannic acid, bitters, and volatile oils (Schauenberg), used as an astringent,
expectorant and nervine (Lust). Some species are said to be poisonous (Cook).
Sium—water parsnip (8/2/1) The leaves and stems are reported to be deadly to livestock. The roots may be edible, but the
plant resembles Cicuta and should be avoided.
Torilis—hedge parsley (5/5/0) Introduced to most of North America, except the Rocky Mountains.
Zizia—zizia (3/3/2) The flowers of Z. aurea may be eaten ina salad or cooked like broccoli (Fern).
180
common cow parsnip

Heracleum maximum ,
woodland angelica
Plants of the ae Angelica sylvestris
Parsley Family jt ge pee

parsnip
Pastinaca sativa
spreading
hedgeparsley “
Torilis arvensis
p p NEE
HW Sane & wy
:| NY
| \\ Vin aY
WH
Zyy
<I j ‘
caraway
Carum cai =) poison hemlock
_ Wild carrot Conium maculatum
Daucus carota
181
Clade: Monocots > Order: Sweet Flag > Family: Sweet Flag
Sweet Flag Family—Acoraceae

Sweet flag superficially resembles cattails (7jpha) in appearance
and habitat. It is a perennial wetland plant with long, slendar leaves and
creeping underground horizontal stems called rhizomes. The rhizomes
are highly aromatic. The tightly packed flowerhead greatly resembles
those of the Arum family, but without an encompassing spathe.
Sweet flag was classified as part of the Arum family until recent
times. Taxonomists still debate whether it belongs in its own order or if
should be included in the Water Plantain order. The individual flowers
are small and bisexual with 6 tepals (3 sepals and 3 petals that cannot be
distinguished from each other), plus 6 stamens. The ovary is positioned
superior and consists of 3 united carpels forming a similar number of
chambers. It matures as a berry with a leathery skin. Worldwide, there
sweet flag
is just the 1 genus and 3 to 6 species. Acorus calamus
Acorus—sweet flag (6/2/1) The tender, young roots can be made into
candy (Hall). The rhizome can be grated and used as flavoring for
spice cake (Lincoff). Our native sweet flag (A. americanus) is con-
sidered safe, but other species may be carcinogenic. A. calamus is
banned as a food or food additive in the U.S. (Tyler).
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Flowering Rush
Sweet
Family
Flag
peach pistil matures as a follicle
Flowering Rush Family—
Butomaceae
The flowering rush is in a class by itself—the
family is comprised of a single genus with a single
species, Butomus umbellatus. Flowering rush is native
to Eurasia, but introduced in North America as an
ornamental plant.
The long, skinny, triangular leaves can grow
to more than three feet in length. Flowers form on
tall stalks in umbrella-like clusters of twenty to fifty
rlowering
Family Individual flowers have 3 pink sepals and
Rushflowers.
3 larger pink petals, plus 9 stamens. There are 6
simple pistils (apocarpous) or slightly united at the
Yj base (syncarpous), positioned superior to the other
parts. Each pistil matures as a follicle, a dry fruit
that splits open along one side to release its many
6 simple ay? seeds. Flowering rush is considered a serious invasive
species along waterway margins in the Great Lakes
9 stamens
region and beyond.
3petals
, sepals Key Words: Rush-like plants
with pink flowers grouped in umbels.
Butomus—flowering rush (1/1/1) The starchy root can

flowering rush be peeled, cooked, and eaten, or dried and ground into
Butomus umbellatus powder (Fern).
182
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Arrowhead
These are aquatic plants Each pistil matures

with primitive flowers. as a single dry seed.
6 or more simple pistils
3, 6 or more stamens
3 white petals
3 green sepals
aula |Sn ty %
y |
CG
ch REA
/ 3
Ret. ee
ie enna Patterns of the water plantain
creeping burhead aa Alisma triviale
Echinodorus cordifolius i Water Plantain Family
Water Plantain Family—Alismataceae (a.k.a. Alismaceae)

If you compare an arrowhead blossom (Sagittaria) to a typical buttercup blossom (Ranunculus) you will see
some striking similarities, even though the plants are from distantly related families, one a monocot and the other a
dicot. Both have numerous pistils clustered together in a ball- or cone-shape in the center of the blossom, surrounded
by numerous stamens. Both families have retained many ancestral characteristics, so they look somewhat similar,
even though they are taxonomically distant from one another.
Members of the Water Plantain or Arrowhead family are aquatic herbs with basal leaves that are either float-
ing or erect. The flowers have 3 green sepals and 3 white petals. There may be 3, 6, or numerous stamens. These
primitive flowers have 6 or more simple pistils, positioned superior to the other
parts. Each pistil matures as a single, dry seed, called an achene. Worldwide, there
are about 11 genera and 90 species. North America genera are listed below. Many
species produce starchy, edible roots.
Key Words: Monocot flowers

with parts in threes and numerous simple pistils.
Alisma—water plantain (10/4/2) * The roots are acrid raw, but edible after thorough
cooking or drying (Olsen). The young, cooked plants are also edible and salty
tasting. Medicinally, the acrid leaves can be applied as a stimulating poultice for
bruises and swellings. The root is reported to lower cholesterol and blood sugar
levels and to reduce blood pressure. The powdered seed is astringent and used to
stop bleeding. It may cause sterility (Fern).
Baldellia—lesser water plantain (2/1/0) B. ranunculoides. Introduced from Europe.
Damasonium—damasonium (5/1/0) Native to the Pacific states.
Echinodorus—buthead (26/4/0) Native to the southern two-thirds of the U.S.
Sagittaria (including Lophotocarpus)—arrowhead, wapato (20/16/2) * The slender,
long roots form starchy swellings in the fall that can be as large as a small egg. :
These can be boiled or roasted and eaten. Wapato is rare here in Montana and
the swollen roots I found were the size of small marbles. But in Oregon, where
wapato grows larger and more abundant, author John Kallas reports harvesting
eighty-eight tubers (1.6 lbs) in fifteen minutes, ranging from 3/4 to 2 inches
long and 3/4 to 1 1/4 inches wide. He conducted his test in late May, just as the beeadiaatarrcntead
tubers were beginning to sprout new shoots. His technique was to gather the Sagittaria latifolia
meal.
roots in shallow water by stomping around on a small area until the tubers were
dislodged and floated to the surface (Kallas).
183
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Arum
Arum Family—Araceae
If you have ever seen an Anthurium, or “little boy plant,” then you have met a member of the Arum family.
This is a family of unique plants with mostly basal leaves and minute flowers crowded on a fleshy stalk that is often
surrounded by a large, colored bract called a spathe. There are 4 to 6 small, scale-like tepals, a term used when the
sepals and petals cannot be distinguished from one another. There are typically 6 (sometimes 1, 2, 4 or 8) stamens.’
The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 or 3 (sometimes 1 to 9) united carpels with the partition walls
present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a berry with 1 to numerous seeds.
Worldwide, there are 110 genera and 3,200 species, mostly tropical and subtropical. Note that sweet flag
(Acorus) has been separated into its own family, Acoraceae. Native or common introduced genera are listed below.
Several additional genera are cultivated in southern states, and some have established feral populations. Duckweeds
were formerly a separate family, but genetic evidence places them within the Arum family.
Common houseplants of the Arum family include Philodendron, Dieffenbachia, and Alocasia. Many members
of this family emit foul smells to attract carrion insects; the insects transport pollen from one plant to another. The
foliage of a number of species contains needle-like calcium oxalate crystals. These crystals can mechanically injure
the mouth and throat when eaten, or can precipitate out in the kidneys, plugging the tubules.
Key Words: Flowers and fruits on a fleshy stalk, often in a spathe.
Orontium—golden club (1/1/0) O. aquaticum is native to the southern and eastern states, from Texas to New York.
Arisaema—Jack-in-the-pulpit (150/2/0) The acrid root is pounded and applied as an irritating poultice to stimulate healing
for rheumatic joints (Gilmore). It contains calcium oxalate crystals. Much of the acridness can be removed by drying.
The dried, powdered root was taken as an expectorant and diaphoretic (Angier).
Arum—atum (12/2/0) Introduced to North America from Europe. The fresh root is extremely acrid, but many-species
can be utilized as a source of starchy food after cooking or drying (Sturtevant). A tea or syrup of the dried root is used
internally as a diaphoretic and expectorant, for asthma, bronchitis, gas and rheumatism (Lust).
Calla—water arum (1/1/0) C. palustris is native to Alaska, Canada, and the northeastern states.
Lysichiton—western skunk cabbage (1/1/1) * L. americanum. It contains oxalates (Phillips). The root is starchy and edible,
but must be thoroughly cooked (Fern). Native Americans roasted, dried and ground the roots for flour (Couplan).
Peltandra—atrow arum (2/2/0) Native to the eastern third of the continent, plus California and Oregon.
Pistia—water cabbage (1/1/0) P stratiotes. Common in waterways in the southern half of North America.
Symplocarpus—eastern skunk cabbage (1/1/0) S. foetidus. Found from North Carolina to Iowa, north through Quebec.
The young, unfurled leaves are edible after boiling in several changes of water (Lincoff).
Duckweed Subfamily—Lemnoideae
These are the world’s smallest flowering plants. The plants form
a thallus (a part not differentiated into leaves and stem), typically no
greater duckweed more than a 1/4 inch in diameter. The little plants float in the water
Spirodela polyrhiza with thread-like roots dangling below. While the plants are tiny, the
flowers are microscopic. The Duckweeds have separate male and female
Arum Family flowers on the same plant, lacking sepals or petals. Male flowers have 1
or 2 stamens, while female flowers consist of a simple pistil, producing
Duckweed Subfamily 1 to 7 seeds.
Look for small, green aquatic plants
with hanging roots floating in ponds.
Formerly classified as their own family, Lemnaceae, genetic evi-
dence places Duckweeds as a subfamily of the Arum family. North
American genera are listed below. Duckweeds are edible, but tend to absorb heavy metals. Only harvest from clean
water sources. Also read about the Water Fern family, which may be confused with the Duckweeds.
Key Words: Small, aquatic plants with hanging roots floating in ponds.
Landoltia—duckmeat (1/1/0) L. punctata. Also known as Spirodela punctata.
Lemna—duckweed (13/9/5) * The plant is edible (Fern), probably when cooked. Duckweed is about 20 percent protein,
higher than peanuts or alfalfa, and is cultivated for food in Asia.
Spirodela—greater duckweed (3/1/1) The plant is edible (Fern), probably when cooked.
Wolfiella—bogmat (10/3/0) The plants are rootless, but have feathery leaves that hang down in the water like roots. They
have a keel that allows them to maintain their orientation in the water
Wolffia—water meal (12/5/2) The cooked plants are edible and rich in protein and carbohydrates (Fern).
184
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Arum
mily
eos
Sa ceas
ee”
at.
=
geeres
#e
ete*
~ Italian arum
Arum italicum
¥ 7 green arrow arum

Peltandra virginica
ep
7 ee
H water arum
A f Calla palustris vi
water cabbage
Pistia stratiotes 4 ae Flowers/fruits form on a fleshy stalk,
y usually surrounded by a colored bract
known as a spathe.
; [ Jack-in-the-pulpit
Arisaema triphyllum
goldenclub |
Orontium
aquaticum
A eastern skunk cabbage

Symplocarpus foetidus
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Frogbit
. 3 sepals— Frogbit Family—Hydrocharitaceae

» and q x 3 3 pele, Next time you see an aquarium with live vegetation, take a
alismoides Gee closer look and see if the Canadian waterweed (Elodea canadensis)
is included. The plant lives fully submerged, except for the floating
flowers. Members of the Frogbit family are highly variable aquatic
plants that live submerged, floating, and/or erect with leaves of
any shape, size, or arrangement. Flowers emerge from a bract or
pair of bracts (modified leaves). These are mostly regular flowers
with typically 3 sepals and 3 petals (sometimes 0). Stamens vary
from 2 to numerous, and flowers may be bisexual or unisexual.
uA The ovary is positioned inferior with typically 2 to 6 : united car-
i :
as AA Panatiian adilpbicied pels, forming a single chamber that matures as a typically fleshy
x Elodea canadensis capsule with numerous dry or pulpy seeds.
Worldwide, there are about 18 genera and about 140 spe-
a.
/ cies. Native or introduced North American genera include: Blyxa,
Egeria, Halophila, Hydrilla, Hydrocharis, Limnobium, Maidenia,
Frogbit Family Thalassia, Vallisneria, and the genera listed here. Najas is described
separately below.
e bract(s)
Key Words: Aquatic plants
with flower parts in 3s and an inferior ovary.
Elodea—waterweed (12/5/3) Common in silty waters and often uti-
lized in aquariums. Lives fully submerged, except for delicate white
flowers.
Ottelia—duck lettuce (1/1/0) O. alisoides. Introduced to California
and Texas.
Water Nymph Subfamily—Najadoideae

The Water Nymphs were formerly treated as a separate
family, Najadaceae, but genetic evidence places it as a subfamily
of the Frogbit family. These are truly aquatic plants that live
and even pollinate fully submerged. The leaves are linear and
toothed with either stipules or sheathing bases.
The flowers are mostly unisexual, with male and female
flowers appearing on the same (monoecious) or separate plants
(dioecious). Staminate (male) flowers consist of a single stamen
enclosed by a bract. Pistillate (female) flowers consist of a single
simple pistil, naked, or sometimes enclosed by a membranous
bract, but appear to have 2 or 3 stigma lobes. The pistil matures
as a dry seed called an achene. The botanical name is often
spelled with an i rather than a j, as in Nazas.
Key Words: Submerged aquatic plants

with toothed, linear leaves.
holly-leaved
Najas—water nymph (50/8/2) The plant is thought to be edible. water nymph
It is valuable as a food source for fish and waterfowl, but may Najas marina
become invasive (Heywood).
solitary pistils
Water Nymph Subfamily
186
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Families: Arrow Grass and Rannoch-Rush
Arrowgrass Family—Juncaginaceae
Members of the Arrow-
grass family are perennial herbs, Patterns of the
typically growing in shallow Arrowgrass Family 6 stamens
fresh or salt water or in damp
meadows. The flowers can be
either bisexual or unisexual. The
flowers are small, with 6 tepals (3 6 tepals
(3 sepals + 3 petals)
sepals + 3 petals that are identi-
cal in size and color). There are
6 carpels
usually 6 stamens (sometimes 4, united or
and only 1 in Lilaea). There are separate
3 to 6 carpels, either separate as
simple pistils (apocarpous) or
united as a single compound pis-
til (syncarpous). The pistil(s) are
positioned superior to the other SS
parts, and each carpel matures
into a dry fruit, either a follicle
(a capsule that opens along a Each carpel ~
forms a single-seeded
single seam), or an achene (a dry fruit.
dry seed). Worldwide, there are
4 genera and about 15 species.
North American genera are listed awl-leaf lilaea
Lilaea scilloides at seaside arrowgrass
below. Triglochin mantima
Key Words: Grassy plants

with non-showy flowers and 3 to 6 simple pistils.
Lilaea—flowering quillwort (1/1/1) L. scilloides. Native to western North

America, from California to Saskatchewan. The plant is sometimes
segregated into its own family, Lilaeaceae. It is not related to the non-
flowering quillwort (Jsoetes) of the Quillwort family.
Triglochin—arrowgrass (12/3/3) * The leaves and rhizomes (horizontal
underground stems) of the Australian water ribbon (7: procerum) are
used as food by Aborigines (Heywood). Arrowgrass leaves and seeds 3 simple
contain a type of cyanide. They are poisonous raw, but cooking de- pistils
stroys the cyanide (Olsen). The leaves may also be edible with cooking
(Harrington). The ashes of the plant are rich in potassium, which is
useful for making soap (Fern). a \
6 stamens 6 tepals
Rannoch-Rush Family—Scheuchzeriaceae
Rannoch-rush (Scheuchzeria palustris) was formerly included in
the Arrowgrass family, but it is unique enough to be a family unto itself.
It has narrow, alternating leaves on an erect stem with a basal sheath,
often spreading by horizontal rhizomes (underground stems). The flowers pistils mature
| as follicles
are greenish-white or yellow, with 6 tepals (3 sepals and 3 petals that are
identical) and 6 stamens. There are 3 simple pistils, positioned superior,
each maturing as a dry fruit called afollicle, which splits open along one
side to release 1 or 2 seeds per follicle. Also known as “pod grass,” the Family
Rannoch-Rush
plant grows in Sphagnum peat bogs in cool temperate regions across the Rannoch-Rush/ ~~
northern hemsiphere. There is only the 1 species. Scheuchzeria palustris
187
Clade: Monocots > Order: Water Plantain > Family: Pondweed
Pondweed Family
Aquatic monocots with
submerged and floating
leaves. Flower parts
in fours.
4 simple
pistils
“i,
!
t
pistils mature
as one-seeded
dry or fleshy fruits
)
broad-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton natans sago pondweed
Stuckenia pectinata
Pondweed Family—Potamogetonaceae
Members of Pondweed family are perennial, aquatic herbs, usually found in fresh or salty water rather than
swamps. Plants are submerged or submerged and floating, often with narrow leaves underwater and broad leaves on
the surface. Flowers are bisexual or rarely unisexual. There are 4 sepals, 0 petals, 4 stamens, and typically 4 (rarely
1)simple pistils, which are positioned superior, each maturing as a single, dry seed (an achene), or sometimes as a
drupe (a berry with a stony seed) or nutlet.
Worldwide, there are 6 genera and 120 species. The composition of this family has been rototilled numerous
times by taxonomists and may be yet again. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words: Monocots with submerged and floating leaves

and flower parts in 4s.
Potamogeton—pondweed (90/30/21) * Root stalks can be cooked in stew (Olsen).
They are reported to have a nutty flavor. The rind should be removed (Fern).
Stuckenia—pondweed (6/5/0) Some species have starchy rhizomes or rhizomes with
~achene starchy tubers that are edible, especially sago pondweed (S. pectinata— formerly
(dry seed)
Potamogeton pectinatus). The starchy tubers are edible raw after separating the
hard rind (Harrington).
stamen
oo Horned Pondweed Subfamily—Zannichelliae

These plants were formerly treated as a separate family, Zannichelliaceae,
but genetic evidence places it as a subfamily of the Pondweed family. These
Horned
Subfamily
Pondweed are aquatic plants that live and even pollinate fully submerged. The plants
can be recognized by their long, thread-like leaves and stringy appearance.
The sepals are absent or reduced to a 3-lobed base under the flowers. North
American species have 1 stamen and 1-9 simple pistils, positioned superior,
with each pistil maturing as a single dry seed (an achene).
Key Words: Submerged, stringy plants lacking sepals or petals.
horned pondweed Zannichellia—horned pondweed (5/1/1) Z. palustris. Found in fresh and brackish
Zannichellia palustris waters across the continent.
188
Clade: Monocots > Order: Palm > Family: Palm
Flowers
emerge
from bract
or spathe. ' coconut
Cocos nucifera
~ AR
California fan palm
date palm eay |FX ve filifera * is
Phoenix
dactylifera
scares) Sy Patterns of the
sane” =F" yracts Palm Family
Palm Family—Arecaceae (a.k.a. Palmae or Palmaceae)
If you have ever gone south to avoid Old Man Winter, then you have likely encountered members of the
Palm family lining city streets. In North America, the Palm family includes trees and tree-like shrubs with slender,
unbranching trunks, and large pinnately or palmately divided leaves. The flowers form in clusters, typically surrounded
by or emerging from one or more bracts (modified leaves), which may become woody with age. The flowers are
regular, bisexual, and usually small and white. There are typically 3 sepals and 3 petals, plus usually 6 (sometimes 3,
9, or numerous) stamens. The ovary consists of usually 3 carpels (up to 10), either as 3 separate pistils (apocarpous),
or united as one pistil (syncarpous), typically maturing as a berry or drupe (a fleshy fruit with a stony seed). World-
wide, there are about 200 genera and 2,600 species. North American genera are listed below. Other monocot trees
are included in the Banana family (Musaceae) and the Bird-of-Paradise family (Strelitziaceae).
Key Words: Unbranching monocot trees in southern climates.
Cocos—coconut (1/1/0) C. nucifera. Introduced for cultivation. I think every survivalist dreams of becoming stranded on
a deserted tropical island, surrounded. by coconut trees. The fibrous coconut husk is excellent tinder for fire-starting.
Inside the coconut is rich “milk” and nutmeat to sustain a person.
Phoenix—date palm (14/3/0) * Introduced from the Old World and widely cultivated in California, Arizona, and Florida.
As a compulsive hunter-gatherer, I am always on the lookout for date palms with ripe dates when I travel south.
Sometimes I see ripe dates high in the trees and cannot get to them, but sometimes I get lucky and find a nice crop
scattered across the ground.
Pseudophoenix—cherry palm (4/1/0) P sargentii. Red fruits. Native to Florida. Cherry palms resemble date palms (Phoenix),
hence the botanical name, Pseudophoenix.
. Rhapidophyllum—needle palm (1/1/0) R. Aystrix. Tolerates colder temperatures. Native from Mississippi to South Carolina.
Sabal—palmetto (15/5/0) Native from Texas to North Carolina. :
Serenoa—saw palmetto (1/1/0) S. repens. Native from Texas to South Carolina.
Thrinax—thatch palm (4/2/0) Native to Florida.
Washingtonia—fan palm (2/2/0) Native to Mexico and southern California. Widely cultivated in the desert southwest and
Florida. The fruits are edible raw, cooked, or dried for later use. The dried fruit is hard, but can be ground into meal
and eaten as porridge (Fern).
189
Clade: Monocots > Order: Spiderwort > Family: Spiderwort
Spiderwort Family—Commelinaceae
If you have a succulent, creeping houseplant with purple leaves and parallel veins, then you have met the
Spiderwort family. Members of this family have alternate, usually sharply folded leaves, and the base of each leaf wraps
around the stem. Spiderworts have nearly regular, bisexual flowers with 3 sepals and 3 petals, usually with 2 broad
petals and the third reduced in size. The petals range from blue to violet, pink, white or rose-colored, but not yellow
in native North American species. The petals sometimes have a sparkly appearance, almost as if they were coated
with sugar crystals. There are usually 6 stamens, and the filaments (stamen stems) are often covered with bright hairs.
Some stamens may be sterile and different in appearance. The ovary is positioned superior and typically consists of
3 united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule with
a few or many seeds per chamber. Spiderworts could be mistaken for lilies, but most lilies have sepals and petals of
approximately equal size and color, while the Spiderworts have smaller, usually greenish sepals.
Worldwide, there are about 40 genera and about 650 species, mostly in the tropics. Six genera are native to
North America, as featured below. Several others are cultivated. A number of plants in this family are called “wan-
dering Jew” and are grown as houseplants. The African marble berry (Pollia condensata) has shiny, metallic-looking
blue berries that are brighter than any other living organism, due to a unique cellular structure that reflects light.
Key Words: Succulent, mucilaginous monocot plants with three nearly equal-sized petals.
Aneilema—(4/1/0)
Aneilema is intro-
duced and some-
times invasive,
found in wetlands
from Texas to
Georgia. The se-
pals are the same
size and color as
the petals.
Callisia—roselings
(20/7/0) Native . pistil
and introduced 6 stamens
? Soh 3 petals
species are found Virginia 3 bapa
from Texas to dayflower
Matslead Commelina
Bet virginica
Commelina—day flow-
er, wandering jew
(150/8/0) * Com-
melina grows wild
across the east-
ern and southern
| Atertile stamen
states. The tender
"ee G,>sterile stamens
(
shoots are edible
as a salad green or Li IR
potherb (Duke).
of
Le
y LL,
XY one petal
i be
Virginia spiderwort
The roots of many Lo allt
Tradescantia virginiana
species are known
:
to be starchy and
wlible (State. 2PIderwort Family
vant). Medicinally,
a tea of the mucilaginous leaves is used as a gargle for sore throats. The plant has antibacterial properties (Fern).
Murdannia—marsh dewflower (50/3/0) Includes some speices formerly classified as Aneilema. These introduced plants are
often found in freshwater marshes or along the edges of ponds and streams.
Tinantia—false day flower (14/1/0) 7; anomala grows in central Texas. (Formerly classified as Commelinantia.)
Tradescantia—spiderwort, wandering Jew (71/31/2) * The plant is edible in salads. The stem has a white, mucilaginous
sap (Bigfoot). Medicinally, a poultice of the leaves is used on insect bites and cancers. The roots are considered laxative
and are used in tea for stomachaches (Fern).
190
Clade: Monocots > Order: Spiderwort > Family: Pickerel Weed
anchored water hyacinth

Ejchhomia azurea
pistil with
ey parts fab ce
floating or
submerged
aquatic plants
Ww
y
pickerelweed
Pontederia cordata
grassleaf mudplantain usually broad leaves

Family
Pickerelweed
Heteranthera dubia and spongy stems
Pickerelweed Family—Pontederiaceae
If you've been around warm waterways choked with purple-flowered, floating plants, then you have prob-
ably met one member of the Pickerelweed family, the invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia). The Pickerelweed family
includes floating or submerged aquatic plants with usually broad, alternating or whorled leaves and spongy stems.
The flowers are lily-like, often emerging from a spathe-like bract, with 6 separate or united tepals (3 sepals and 3
petals that are similar in size and color), and 6 stamens (3 in Her-
eranthera) attached to the petals. The ovary is positioned superior
and consists of 3 united carpels, but may abort some, forming
one to three chambers. It matures as a capsule with numerous
seeds per chamber. Worldwide there are about 6 genera and 30
species. North American genera are listed below.
Key Words:
Aquatic plants with spongy stems and lily-like flowers.
Eichhornia—water hyacinth (7/3/0) Native to South America.

Invasive in warm waters of southern states. Water hyacinth |
thrives in nutrient-rich waters and can be useful for cleansing
wastewater, but can also reduce oxygen levels in the water,
killing fish.
Heteranthera—mud plantain (12/7/1) Native to North America,
and found in most states and provinces. .
Monochoria—false pickerelweed (12/1/0) M. hastata. Introduced
to California.
Pontederia—pickerelweed (6/1/0) P cordata is native to the eastern
half of the continent. heartleaf
false pickerelweed
Monochoria vaginalis
194
Clade: Monocots > Order: Lily > Family: Lily
Lily Family—Liliaceae
Most showy monocot flowers with parts in threes belong to the Lily family or one of its allies. Lilies have
3 sepals and 3 petals, which are identical in size and color (often referred to as 6 tepals). There are 6 stamens, but
some species lack anthers on some of the stamens. The overy is positioned superior and consists of 3 united carpels,
as indicated by the same number of stigmas. Partition walls are present, forming an equal number of chambers. The ©
ovary matures as a capsule or a berry with 3 to numerous seeds.
Taxonomists have struggled with lily-like flowers, originally lumping them together as a conglomerate Lily
family encompassing about 250 genera and 3,700 species. Numerous attempts were made to split the family into
proper families and subfamilies based on actual relationships, resulting in many different classification schemes and
up to 70 different proposed families. Blue camas (Camassia), for example, is listed in different sources as a member
of the Lily family, Hyacinth family, Agave family, and now the Agave subfamily of the Asparagus family. The families
and subfamilies used here presumeably follow genetic lines and should be reasonably stable in the future. Be sure to
read about each of the lily-like families and their subfamiles for clues as to which group your specimen belongs. The
redefined Lily family has been reduced to about 16 genera and 640 species.
Key Words: Monocot flowers with parts in threes. Sepals and petals usually identical.
Lily Subfamily—Lilioideae
Plants of the Lily subfamily usually have larger, more showy blossoms than other lilies, and they grow from
starchy bulbs or corms. These bulbs and corms are often edible, but be extremely cautious—plants of the Bunchflower
family also have bulbs, and some of them are highly poisonous.
Erythronium—glacier lily, fawn lily, dog-tooth violet (20/18/1) * The starchy corm of the glacier lily is crisp and sweet,
but be careful to avoid overharvesting them since plants take years to grow to maturity. The leaves are edible as a salad
green or potherb, however, there is a lingering bite to them, which can be emetic in excess. Read more about harvesting
glacier lilies in Participating in Nature. .
Fritillaria—yellowbell, leopard lily, brown lily (130/19/2) * The whole plant is edible, both raw or cooked. The starchy corm
is delicious and almost melts in your mouth like butter, but seldom grow in enough abundance to justify collecting
a significant quantity of them. The leopard lily is even more rare. A European species contains highly toxic alkaloids
(Schauenberg); a species in China is also poisonous (Klein).
Lilium—iily, wood lily (150/25/2) * The pulverized flower was applied by the Dakota Indians to a certain brown spider
bite (Gilmore). The bulbs of many Liliums are known to be edible (Sturtevant). The Easter lily (L. longiflorum) and
several other mostly oriental species of lily are toxic to cats, but apparently only to cats.
Lloydia—alpine lily (12/1/1) L. serotina. Grows at high elevations from New Mexico to Alaska.
Tulipa—tulip (150/3/0) * Introduced. Tulip bulbs are edible cooked, but most store-bought bulbs are coated with a fungicide
to prevent rotting. Only experiment with bulbs that have been planted for a year or more. The petals are also edible.
Sego Lily Subfamily—Calochortoideae

This subfamily is not a very intuitive grouping, since there are two distinct patterns here. Both Calochortus
and Scoliopus have basal leaves and large, showy flowers, but unlike true lilies, they have distinct sepals and petals.
Both genera produce seed-filled capsules. Streptopus and Prosartes, on the other hand, have alternating leaves along a
kinked stem and smaller flowers with 6 lily-type tepals. Both genera produce berries, rather than capsules.
Calochortus—sego lily, mariposa lily (65/46/7) * The bulb is delicious roasted or boiled, but watch out for death camas
(see the Bunchflower family for more information).
Scoliopus—adderstongue (2/2/0) The common name may be confused with the Adder’s Tongue family.
Streptopus—twisted stalk (10/4/1) * The young leaves and stalks are edible. The berries are edible but lack flavor.
Prosartes—fairy bells (5/5/2) American species were split out from the Asian Disporum as too unrelated.
Indian Cucumber Subfamily—Medeoloideae |

These are forest plants with basal leaves (Clintonia) or whorled leaves (Medeola) and 6 lily-like tepals. The
fruit is a purple berry.
Clintonia—queen’s cup (5/4/1) * The plants are edible: the very young leaves in salad, older leaves cooked (Fern).
Medeola—Indian cucumber (1/1/0) M. virginiana. Grows in eastern North America. The crisp roots are edible raw or
cooked and reportedly taste like: cucumber. The plant may be endangered in some states.
192
Clade: Monocots > Order: Lily > Family: Lily
Patterns of the Lily Family
;: | ovary matures clasping twisted stalk

as capsule or berry Streptopus amplexifolius
pistil has
~—3-parted stigma
indicating 3 carpels
usually identical
in size and color
sukashiyuri
Lilium maculatum
sagebrush
Canada lily } jj mariposa lily
Lilium canadense ij Calochortus
7 macrocarpus
yellowbell
Fritillaria pudica
common alplily 7 glacier lily

wood lily shies Lloydia serotina L/ Erythronium
Lilium philadelphicum I ‘| grandiflorum
193
Clade: Monocots > Order: Lily > Family: Bunchflower
Most species have eastern turkeybeard

bunches of little », Xerophyllum asphodeloides
incomplete fusion /\
white or greenish
of the pistils
flowers.
* ”
3-parted pistil
Ww lily-like
flowers
white trillium
Trillium grandifiorum
sandbog death camas

Zigadenus glaberimus
Bunchflower Family
Bunchflower Family—Melanthiaceae
Most plants in the Bunchflower family have bunches of little white or greenish, lily-like lowers with 3 sepals
and 3 petals that are identical in size and color, plus 6 stamens, and a 3-parted pistil. In most species the pistil has 3
styles which have not completely fused together as they have in the Lily family. The ovary is positioned superior or
nearly so, and consists of 3 united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an equal number of chambers.
It matures as a capsule with 2 or more seeds per chamber. Note that Trillium typically has a nage large flower that
does not fit the bunch flower pattern, but is apparently related anyway.
Worldwide, the Bunchflower family includes about 25 genera and 140 species. It is important to learn this
family right away because many of them, particularly death camas, are quite poisonous. Unfortunately, taxonomic
reshuffling has greatly confused what is and is not a death camas.
Key Words: Bunches of Lily-like flowers with incompletely fused pistils.

Amianthium—fly poison (1/1/0) A. muscitoxicum. American colonists mashed the bulb and mixed it with sugar to kill flies.
Anticlea—death camas (11/11/2) This genus consists of species shuffled in from Zigadenus and Stenathium, including
mountain death camas (A. elegans, formerly Z. elegans). Death camas contains a toxic alkaloid that may be twice as
potent as strychnine (Harrington). Ingestion can cause vomiting, diarrhea and death (Hall). The toxicity of death camas
varies according to the species and subspecies and probably varies from place to place and year to year. The lethal dose
could be as little as part of one bulb or as many as fifty bulbs. Medicinally, the raw roots have been used externally as
a poultice for inflamed joints (Murphey). Do not use without expert supervision.
Melanthium—bunchflower (4/4/0) Species of this genera are sometimes included with Veratrum and contain similar alkaloids.
Stenanthium—featherbells (3/3/0) Three species of Stenanthium were exported to Anticlea, and two species of Zigadenus
were imported to Stenanthium, including the Pine Barrens death camas (S. leimanthoides, formerely Z. leimanthoides).
Tofieldia—asphodel (3/3/1) Tofieldia and the closely related Triantha have been segregated into Tofieldiaceae.
Toxicoscordion—death camas (9/9/1) Formerly included within Zigadenus.
Trillium—birthroot, wake robin (30/26/1) © Trillium is listed as astringent, diaphoretic and expectorant. The tea is used
internally for asthma, bronchitis, hemorrhaging from the lungs and as menstrual stimulant. The poultice is used exter-
_ nally for insect bites and stings (Lust). It contains some saponin. Sometimes segregated into Trilliaceae.
Veratrum—false hellebore (48/7/2) * Veratrum contains dangerous alkaloids that depress the nervous system, resulting in
a slower heart rate and lower blood pressure (Hall). It is very powerful and considered too dangerous for amateurs to
work with (Lust). Native Americans inhaled the dried, powdered root to induce sneezing to clear the sinuses (Klein).
Xerophyllum—beargrass, turkeybeard (2/2/1) The baked root is edible (Fern). The leaves may be used for cordage.
Zigadenus—sandbog death camas (1/1/0) * Z. glaberrimus. A native of the southeastern states, the bulb and leaves contain
toxic alkaloids. At one time there were about twenty species of death camas within Zigadenus. However, based on new
evidence, all but Z. glaberrimus have been shuffled to other genera, spread out across Amianthium, Anticlea, Stenanthium,
and Toxicoscordion. At the same time, other plants in these genera were shuffled around as well, rototilling the genera
so thoroughly that it can be nearly impossible to sort it all out when researching a particular plant. In cross-referencing _
with other sources, expect to see death camas listed as various species of Zigadenus.
194
Clade: Monocots > Order: Lily > Families: Greenbrier and Autumn Crocus
Greenbrier Family—Smilacaceae
If you find a monocot vine with flowers or fruits in umbels, it
is almost certainly a member of the Greenbrier family. The challenge,
however, is recognizing the plant as a monocot, since it has some dicot-
like features. These are somewhat woody vines, often with spines, with
simple, alternate leaves. The leaves may have either palmate or net-veined
leaves, much like dicots plants. Many species have a pair of tendrils at the
base of the leaf stem.
In some species of Smilax, the flowers emit a foul odor to attract
flies and beetles to assist with pollination. Flowers form in an umbel (like
an umbrella), superficially resembling some plants from the Ginseng fam-
ily. The flowers are unisexual, and dioecious (male and female flowers are
borne on separate plants). The flowers have 6 tepals (3 sepals and 3 petals
of similar size and color). Male flowers have 6 stamens. The female flower
has a 3-parted pistil with 3 stigmas. The ovary is positioned superior, and
consists of 3 united carpels with the partition walls present, forming an
equal number of chambers. It matures as a red or purple berry with 1 or
2 seeds per chamber. Worldwide, the Greenbrier family includes 1 or 2
genera and about 300 species.
Key Words: Monocot vines with umbels.
smooth Smilax—greenbrier, sarsaparilla, carrion flower (300/26/1) ¢ The roots contain
carrionflower a gelatin-like substance that can be extracted by crushing and washing them.
Smilax
Greenbrier
Family herbacea
The young leaves and shoots are edible as a salad green or potherb (Hall).
The tender young shoots somehwat resemble asapargus in appearance,
and can be used similarly, particularly those species without any thorns or spines (Thayer). Be sure to read The Forager’s
Harvest for more information. The root of some species was formerely used in the production of root beer. Medicinally,
a tea of the root is listed as diaphoretic, carminative, diuretic and as a blood purifier (Lust).
Autumn Crocus Family—Colchicaceae

If you have rambled through eastern woodlands in springtime, then you
have likely encountered the drooping yellow blossoms of a bellwort (Uvularia),
the North American representative of the Autumn Crocus family. Like other
plants that were once included in the Lily family, members of the Autumn
Crocus family typically have 3 sepals and 3 petals that are identical in size and
color, plus 6 stamens and a 3-parted pistil. The ovary is positioned superior
and matures as a capsule with 5 to 50 seeds per chamber. Our bellworts are
superficially similar to twisted stalk (Streptopus) of the Lily family, since both
genera have a main stem that zig-zags between alternating leaves. But bellworts
have yellow or creamy flowers and produces seed capsules, while twisted stalk
has white or purplish flowers and produces a berry.
Worldwide there are about 20 genera and 200 species. The family name
comes from the autumn crocus (Colchicum), an Old World native with flowers
Famil
Croc
Autu
that bloom in fall, long after the leaves have withered away. The flowers super-
ficially resemble the true Crocus of the Iris family, but in Colchium, the “stem” is
actually an elongated floral tube, with the ovary of flower buried underground.
Key Words (Uvularia): Zig-zaggy stalks with droopy yellow flowers.

Resembles
Disporum—fairy bells (20/0/0) North American species were reclassified as Prosartes twisted stalk
of the Lily family.
of the Lily family. Other species of Disporum are primarily found in Asia. perfoliate bellwort
Uvularia perfoliata
Uvularia—bellwort (5/5/0) There are five species of bellwort in North America,
ranging from Manitoba to Texas, east to the Atlantic coast.
195
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Amaryllis
Amaryllis Family—Amaryllidaceae
If you have enjoyed a potted Amaryllis blooming in mid-winter, than you have met the Amaryllis family.
Members of this family are typically perennial plants that resprout each year from underground bulbs. The leaves are
— usually somewhat juicy and tender, rather than fibrous.
wild chives : .
Allium schoenoprasum lily-like flowers The flowers are often grouped in an umbel (like an
umbrella), or sometimes solitary, and typially emerge from
a spathe-like bract (a modified leaf wrapped around the
flowerhead). Otherwise, individual flowers are typical lily-
flowers
like blossoms with 3 sepals and 3 petals that are identical
often in size and color. The daffodil (Varcissus) has an extra inner
grouped whorl called the corona. Most species have 6 stamens. The
in umbels
ovary is positioned either inferior or superior and matures
as a capsule with numerous seeds per chamber. The dried
petals are often found clinging to the tip of the fruit.
As currently defined, the Amaryllis family encom-
passes an estimated 60 genera and 850 species, only a
handful of which are found in North America. The pot-
ted flowers we know as “amaryllis” were segregated from
Amaryllis into a closely related new genus, Hippeastrum,
but the old name reamains as the common name. Edibility
varies significantly across the family. Onions (Allium) and
their kin have sometimes been segregated into their own
family, and may be yet again.
Key Words:
Monocots with onion-like bulbs and juicy leaves.
Flowerheads wrapped in a bract.
autumn Amaryllis Subfamily—Amaryllidoideae

zephyriily Flowers are either solitary or grouped in an umbel,
Zephyranthes
with the flowerhead wrapped in a spathe-like bract.
Crinum—swamp lily (130/4/0) Texas to North Carolina.
nodding onion == Galanthus—snowdrop (15/2/0) European native. Feral.
eee Cae Leucojum—snowflake (10/2/0) European native. Feral.
Lycoris—ted spider lily (13/2/0) Asian native. Feral in the East.
Narcissus—daffodil (30/10/0) Native to the Old World, but
cultivated onion feral in North America. The leaves and particularly the
Allium cepa bulb contain a toxic alkaloid called lycorine.
Amaryllis Family Zephyranthes— zephyrlily (60/10/0) Native and introduced
species are found from Arizona to Virginia.
Onion Subfamily—Alloideae
Small flowers are grouped in an umbel, typially emerging from a spathe-like bract. Ovary is positioned
superior. Compare to the Asparagus Family / Brodiaea subfamily.
Allium—onion, garlic, chives, leeks (550/80/11) * Various species grow in many different environments from semi-swampy
mountain meadows to very dry, south-facing foothill slopes. Be careful to avoid confusing wild onions with death camas
from the Bunchflower family. Crush the plant and smell it. If it smells like an onion then it is one. Wild onions make a
great addition to almost any wilderness meal. Medicinally, the A//ium species contain volatile oils and sulfur glycosides.
They act as a digestive stimulant, expectorant, anthelmintic and carminative (Lust). Garlic is especially recommended
for colds; it has also been shown to lower cholesterol and blood pressure.
Nothoscordum—false garlic (90/3/0) These plants look similar to wild onions and garlic, but lack the odor. It is not known if
the plant or bulb is edible, and some sources list them as poisonous, but seemingly without any mention of the specific
toxins, symptoms, or reports of illness or fatalities.
196
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Asparagus
Asparagus Family—Asparagaceae
In splitting up the old Lily family into smaller families of more closely related
plants, taxonomists defined the Asparagus, Brodiaea, Nolina, and Agave families, listing
them as distinctfamilies sensu stricto (“in the strict sense”), or lumping them together as
subfamilies within a conglomerate Asparagus family, sensu lato (“in the wider sense’).
Taxonomists currently favor the latter, but unfortunately, the conglomerate family lacks
any obvious patterns for intuitive identification. Separate descriptions are provided for
each of the subfamilies here to clarify identification. Similar to other lily-like families,
members of the Asparagus family typically have 3 sepals and 3 petals that are similar
in size and color, plus 6 stamens and a 3-parted pistil.
Asparagus Subfamily—Asparagoideae
Instead of true leaves, Asparagus has leaf-like branches for photosynthe-
sis. This subfamily includes only two genera, Asparagus, from the Old World, and asparagus |}
Hemiphylacus from Mexico. Asparagus
officinalis ,
Key Words: Fern-like feathery leaves. Fruit is a berry.
Asparagus— (300/4/1) A. officinalis is the cultivated asparagus. It has escaped from —
gardens and now grows wild in some areas, particularly along roads and fence
lines. It is always a delight to find a patch in the spring. Medicinally, asparagus is
diuretic, acting to increase cellular activity in the kidneys; it is not recommended
for inflamed kidneys. Asparagus is also a bulk fiber laxative. The powdered seeds
are used as a diaphoretic and to calm the stomach (Lust).
Brodiaea Subfamily—Brodiaeoideae —
The Brodiaea have lily-like flowers with 3 sepals and 3 petals that are similar ‘si y
in size and color, plus 6 stamens and a 3-parted pistil. In many species the petals are
united, at least at the base, forming tubular flowers. Flowers range from white to blue
and purple, rarely red or yellow. They are typically grouped in umbels which emerge from a spathe-like bract (a
modified leaf). Brodiaea leaves and flowers are somewhat similar to onions (Allium) from the Amaryllis family, but
onions produce a bulb, while Brodiaeas produce a starchy corm instead.
Key Words: Tubular flowers in umbels, emerging from a spathe-like bract.
Bloomeria—golden stars (2/2/0) Grows along the

Pacific Coast.
Brevoortia—fire-cracker flower (2/2/0) Both species
grow along the Pacific Coast. These plants were
formerly included in the Brodiaea.
Brodiaea—brodiaea, blue dicks (10/10/0) The Triteleza
genus was split out of the Brodiaea. Many of the
plants still appear under either name. For example,
Brodiaea grandiflora is also listed as Triteleia gran-
diflora.
Muilla—muilla (4/4/0) California, Nevada. The name
Muilla comes from Allium spelled backwards, due
to the plant’s superficial resemblance to onions.
Triteleia—wild hyacinth, brodiaea (14/14/1) * The
cooked bulb is edible and delicious; it has a buttery
texture and flavor similar to the starchy corm of the
yellowbell. The plants in my area are small and rare,
largeflower but I had the opportunity to dig up several cups
triteleia full in eastern Oregon... a real treat.
Subfamily
rodiaea
Triteleia firecracker flower
Dichelostemma ida-maia
17
solomon's seal
star solomon’s seal Polygonatum multiforum
Maianthemum stellatum
(Smilacina stellata)
lily-of-the-valley
Asparagus Family Convallaria majalis
Beargrass Subfamily
Beargrass Subfamily—Nolinoideae \
The Beargrass subfamily of the Asparagus family was cobbled together from a number of closely related
groups of plants that were previously proposed as independent families themselves, including Ruscaceae, Dracaenaceae,
Convallariaceae, Eriospermaceae, and Nolinaceae. And of course, all of these little families were historically lumped
together into one big Lily family.
Similar to other lily-like flowers, these plants have 3 sepals and 3 petals that are similar in size and color,
plus 6 stamens and a 3-parted pistil. In some species the petals are united and bell-shaped or tubular. The ovary is
positioned superior and matures into a berry in Convallaria and its closest relatives (pictured above). In Nolina and
Dasylirion the ovary matures as a 3-sided capsule that superficially resembles
fruits of the Buckwheat family, while the vegetation confused with Yucca and
Agave from the Agave subfamily. The bottom line is that there isn’t a particularly
good pattern to summarize this group. Also keep in mind that there is another
plant called beargrass (Xerophyllum) in the Bunchflower family.
Convallaria—iily-of-the-valley (2/2/0) Convallaria’s cardiac glycosides can cause
an irregular heartbeat (Lust).
Dasylirion—sotol (25/3/0) * The young flower stalk of the plant is rich in sugar,
sometimes used to make alcohol. It can be cooked and eaten (Bigfoot, Fern).
Maianthemum—Canada mayflower, false lily-of-the-valley (3/2/1)
Nolina—beargrass (30/14/0) * See also beargrass (Xerophyllum) in the Bunchflower
family.
Polygonatum—solomon's seal (30/4/0) The young shoots and starchy, mucilaginous
roots are edible as potherb s (Sturtevant). The tea is used as a demulcent,
expectorant and cough suppressant. A poultice of the root is used as an emol-
lient, possibly with mildly astringent properties.
Smilacina—false solomon seal, solomon’s plume (25/5/2) * This genus has recently
been folded into Maianthemum, but continues to appear in many books as
Smilacina.
Texas beargrass ‘
Nolina texana
198
Yucca spp.
Yucca flowers are pollinated only by the yucca moth, Pronuba

yuccasella. The moth larvae eat the developing seeds, but
enough seeds survive to produce more yuccas.
Agave Subfamily—Agavoideae
Plants of the Agave subfamily of the
Asparagus family have mostly basal leaves and a
central. flower stalk, sometimes with additional
leaves alternating up the stalk. In most species,
the base of the plant, or the bulb (if present), is
surrounded by a brown fibrous layer. } American agave
Adapting to a particular environment LG Si
can radically impact the outward appearance ofa
species compared to its kin. The desert-dwelling
Agave and Yucca are tough plants with fibrous, Agave
Subfamily
sharp-tipped leaves, while Camassia is a more alate
Family
Asparagus
te,
tender plant found with its starchy bulb and bf J ES aN Camassia
roots in the water. The soap plant (Chlorogalum) eee ee. HE \\ Bsciloides
enjoys an intermediate environment and has
intermediate characteristics, while the sand lily
(Leucocrinum) is adapted to shady, moist forests like the Lily family plants it greatly resembles. Some plants in the
Agave and Beargrass subfamilies share superficial similarities.
Key Words: Monocots with basal leaves, a central flower stalk, and brown, fibrous basal wrappings.
Agave—agave (300/26/0) * Juice from the leaves can be acrid. The young flower stalk is edible raw or cooked. It is commonly
cooked in a steam pit for two to three days to convert the starches to sugar (Bigfoot). Due to its high sugar content,
mostly fructose, blue agave (A. tequilana) is cultivated and used for making tequila. Sisal fiber comes from A. sisalana.
Camassia—blue camas (5/5/1) * Caution is advised: blue camas resembles death camas (Anticlea /Zigadenus) before it
blooms. Blue camas bulbs are starchy and nearly tasteless, but often golf-ball sized and larger. Camas was a major
food source for some Native Americans. The bulbs are rich in inulin, a carbohydrate, as well as a dietary fiber called
hemi-cellulose. Neither are digestible raw, but the inulin can be converted to fructose through extended cooking. Na-
tive Americans cooked camas bulbs in a steam pit for 10 to 72 hours. In kitchen experiments John Kallas found that
pressure-cooking the roots at 257°F for nine hours produced the sweetest tasting roots (Kallas). Read more about blue
camas in Foraging the Mountain West.
Chlorogalum—soap plant, amole (5/5/0) * Soap plants are native to western North America, from Oregon south to Baja.
The starchy root is rich with saponins. California natives crushed the roots and mixed them into slow moving waters
to stupefy the fish. (Read more about saponins in the Medicinal Properties section of this book.) The bulbs can be
slowly pit-baked to remove the soapy taste.
Hesperaloe—false yucca (5/2/0) Native to Texas. |
Hesperocallis—desert lily (1/1/0) H. undulata. Native to California, Nevada, and Arizona. The bulbs are edible.
Leucocrinum—sand lily (1/1/1) * L. montanum. Native to western North America. It has fleshy roots instead of a bulb.
Manfreda—tuberose (20/4/0) Native from Texas to Maryland.
Schoenolirion—sunnybell (3/3/0) Native from Texas to North Carolina.
Yucca (including Hesperoyucca)—yucca, joshua tree (40/38/1) * The flower stem and flowers and especially the root, contain
saponin, which is used as a soap substitute. The flowers and pods of some species of yucca are edible (Sturtevant), but
many are too bitter to be palatable. The leaves contain some salicin (Pamell).
199
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Grass Tree
Grass Tree Family—Xanthorrhoeaceae

The Grass Tree family is not native to North America. However,
Se ; ‘ , yellow day lily
the subfamilies and genera below are widely cultivated here and may be 3-parted
- pistil Hemerocallis
feral in some regions. Formerly considered part of the Lily family, the lilioasphodelus
flowers consist of 3 sepals and 3 petals that are nearly identical in size i
and color, plus 6 stamens and a 3-parted pistil. The ovary is positioned
superior and consists of 3 united carpels with the partition walls usually
present, forming an equal number of chambers. It matures as a capsule
with 3 or more seeds per cell. See the subfamilies for distinguishing
characteristics.
Day Lily Subfamily—Hemerocallidoideae

Many plants of the Day Lily subfamily have fleshy, tuber-
ous roots, which helps distinguish them from other lily-like flowers.
Worldwide, there are about 7 or 8 genera and 40 species in the Day Lily
Subfamily.
Key Words: Lily-like flowers, but with tuberous roots. >

Hemerocallis—day lily (16/2/0) * Day lily is native to Eurasia, but has Lily-like flowers
escaped cultivation in this country. The flowers and buds are edible _with 3 sepals and 3 petals
as a cooked vegetable. The tubers can be harvested any time and __Similar in size and color.
eaten raw or cooked (Hall). There have been isolated cases of adverse
reactions (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), possibly do to environmental Subfamily
Lily
Day
factors or genetic variants. People who successfully consumed the
plant for many years still became ill (Kallas).
Asphodel Subfamily—Asphodeloideae
Aloe vera and other species of Aloe are widely cultivated, both indoors as house plants, and outdoors in
tropical climates. Native to Africa, Aloe now grows wild in parts of Texas, Florida, and California. Many plants of
this subfamily have thickened, spongy roots with multiple layers to help prevent water loss. Aloe looks superficially
like Agave of the Asparagus family / Agave subfamily but its thick leaves are full of mucilaginous (slimy) juice, useful
for treating sunburns. Agave has dense, fibrous leaves. Worldwide there are about 15
Pay genera and 750 species in the Asphodel Subfamily.
3
& Key Words: Agave-like plants with tubular flowers and slimy juice.
re)
a| Aloe—aloe (380/2/0) * My grandmother always treated my sunburns with Alve vera. She split
Y) the leaf down the middle and rubbed the slimy, mucilaginous gel over any burns. Often
® my burns tanned over without peeling after this treatment. It is a family tradition to keep
xe) an Aloe vera around for such occasions. The treatment should be repeated several times a
° day for maximum effect. My daughter Cassie perfected this treatment with her sensitive
a
a. skin, turning horrific sunburns into non-peeling tans, by applying coat-after-coat of Aloe
XD vera gel, as much as her skin could absorb. Read more about mucilaginous substances in
< the Medicinal Properties section of this book.
The beneficial properties of Aloe vera may break down in storage, so that many
commercial products have little therapeutic value. Some may even retard healing (Ty-
ler). Taken internally, Aloe vera also has cathartic properties (strongly laxative) due to
anthraquinone glycosides (Geller) in the bitter yellow latex found immediately beneath
the surface of the leaf (Tyler).
200
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Iris
Iris Family—IJridaceae Iris has

Virginia iris
Iris virginica
Stop and look closely at an iris or 3 petal-like stigmas : c
gladiolus the next time you come across 3 stamens
one in a yard, a bouquet, or at the florist.
3 petals
Members of this family produce regular,
bisexual flowers with parts in multiples of 3 showy sepals
three. There are 3 sepals, colored to look
like petals, and 3 true petals, plus 3 sta-
mens. The ovary is positioned inferior and
consists of 3 united carpels, as indicated
by the same number of stigmas. Partition
walls are usually present, forming an equal
number of chambers. It matures as a capsule
containing many seeds.
The stigmas of the pistil are often
distinctive; in the /ris they look like a third
set of petals and the stamens are hidden
underneath—this is well worth looking at! Family
lris
Overall, the flowers of the Iris family look
much like the Lilies. One key difference
is that Iris leaves usually lay in a flat plane
at the base of the plant. Also note that the
Lilies have 6 stamens, while the Irises only
have 3.
Worldwide, there are about 70
genera and about 1,800 species. The Gladi-
olus and Crocus are commonly cultivated yellow iris ovary |}matures
flowers of this family. Saffron is made from Iris pseudacorus as 3-chambered narrowleaf blue-eyed grass
capsule Sisyrinchium angustifolium
the stigmas of Crocus sativus. Other culti-
vated genera include Tigridia, Freesia, Ixia,
Romulea, Neomarica, Moraea, and Trimezia.
Key Words: “Lily-like flowers with leaves in a flat plane.”

Alophia—propeller flower (5/1/0) A. drummondii. Found from Texas to Mississippi.
Belamcanda—blackberry lily (1/1/0) B. chinensis. Introduced from Asia, and naturalized from Connecticut to Texas. Pods
open to reveal cluster of black seeds that resembles blackberry. Now reclassified as ris domestica.
Calydorea—Bartram’s ixia (20/1/0) C. coelestina. Native to Florida and Georgia. |
Tris—iris (225/36/2) © Irises have starchy, but usually acrid roots. Several species are edible, but a few may be potentially
dangerous, including the common blue iris (/. versicolor) (Pammel). Iris roots were boiled by some Native Americans
and applied as a poultice on wounds (Weiner). Irises with acrid qualities are listed as cathartic, emetic, diuretic and as
a saliva stimulant. A tea of the root is used for chronic digestive disorders, including heartburn and vomiting, and for
migraine headaches caused by indigestion (Lust). The iris is used as a liver and lymph stimulant (Bigfoot). For additional
information, be sure to read about acrid substances in the Medicinal Properties section of this book. Iris germanica, I.
florentina, and I. pallida are the source of orris root, used in perfume and potpourri. Iris leaves can be used for cordage.
Some irises were preferred by Native Americans for making deer snares (Moerman).
Nemastylis—celestial lily (5/4/0) Grows from Arizona to Florida, and north as far as Missouri.
Olsynium—grass widow (17/1/0) O. douglasiz. Grows from California to British Columbia, as far east as Utah. Previously
included in Sisyrinchium.
Sisyrinchium—blue-eyed grass (80/44/2) * North American species have mostly blue flowers, but also white and yellow.
201
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Orchid
Orchid Family— Orchidaceae

The orchids are the only monocot plants in the northern latitudes with
distinctive, irregular blossoms. It is worth a trip to the floral store to see the unique
flowers, but far more exciting to find them in the wild. The flowers have 3 sepals and
3 petals. The sepals can be green or colored like the petals. The lower petal is ofteri
modified into a sort of “sack” or “spur.” The flowers are bisexual with 1 or 2 stamens
combined with the pistil into a column. The ovary is positioned inferior and con-
sists of 3 united carpels, forming a single chamber. It matures as a 3-valved capsule
with numerous seeds. The inferior ovary is one of the more distinctive patterns for
identifying members ofthis family. It elongates into a seed capsule while the flowers
are still present. The seeds are almost microscopic, consisting of a minute embryo
snakemouth orchid
Pogonia ophiogiossoides
enclosed in a few cells. Orchids associate with fungi, and must find the proper host
to successfully germinate.
The Orchid family is the biggest family of lowering plants, most of which
inhabit the tropics. Worldwide, there are about 800 genera representing more than
20,000 species, possibly as many as 35,000. Vanilla flavoring is extracted from the
immature pods of Vanilla planifolia. Many genera are cultivated. There are about 88
genera and at least 140 species of Orchids in North America, mostly in the Sou:
Many orchids are rare and should not be harvested.
Key Words: Irregular monocot flowers with a distinctly inferior ovary.

Amerorchis—tround-leaf orchid (1/1/1) A. rotundifolia. Found throughout Canada and
some northern states.
Aplectrum—Adam and Eve (1/1/0) A. Ayemale, Native from Oklahoma to Georgia,
north to Quebec.
Calopogon—grasspink (5/5/0) Native from Texas to Manitoba, east to the Atlantic.
Calypso—fairy slipper (1/1/1) * C. budbosa, The plant and root are edible raw or cooked
(Willard).
Corallorhiza—coral root (15/6/5) * Symbiotic with fungi; most species do not produce
chlorophyll. A tea of the root is used as a sedative and nervine (Moore).
Cypripedium—lady slipper (50/10/4) * Lady slipper is considered a non-narcotic seda-
tive (Weiner). A tea of the root is used as a tranquilizer for nervousness or spasms.
Overdosing may cause hallucinations. The fresh root may irritate the skin (Lust).
It contains a volatile oil and a glucosidal resinoid (Densmore). Hairs on the stems
of some species can cause a dermatitis reaction (Pammel).
Epipactis—helleborine, stream orchid (20/2/2) Epépactis contains resins, volatile oils
and bitter glycosides. It is antispasmodic and sedative, and uplifting rather than
depressant (Moore).
Goodyera—rattlesnake plantain (100/4/2) The plant is mucilaginous and astringent;
the fresh plant or dry powder is used as a drawing poultice (Moore). The leaves or
roots have emollient properties for use on skin conditions (Lust).
Habenaria—bog orchid (600/35/7) * This species is common in my area. The cooked
roots are edible, but please do not overharvest the plants.
Neottia—twayblade (30/7/4) Includes species formerly classifed as Listena.
Liparis—false twayblade, widelip orchid (350/3/0) Found from British Columbia to
Florida, north to Quebec.
Pogonia—snakemouth orchid (7/1/0) P ophioglossoides. Native from Texas to Manitoba,
east to the Atlantic.
Spiranthes—ladies’ tresses (35/25/2) Various species are found throughout North Amer-
ica. Most have been segregated as other genera, later merged back with Spinanthes,
with some re-segregated again into other genera.
Tipularia—cranefly (3/1/0) T. discolor. Native from Texas to New York.
Triphora—nodding caps (25/5/0) Native from Texas to Ontario, east to the Atlantic.
Clade: Monocots > Order: Asparagus > Family: Orchid
irregular flowers
3 petal-like sepals
yellow lady slipper
Cypripedium parviflorum
7 inferior ovary inflates

_ to become seed capsule
lower petal may eva,
include either
sack or spur
Patterns of the
Orchid Family
| Corallorhiza
maculata
stream orchid
Epipactis gigantea
/ longhorn
<Y. bog orchid
2 We Habenaria
orchid |
Orchis | ~
mascula
‘ B
rattlesnake ce
ye
ies
i
plantain
Goodyera
pubescens
fairy slipper
Calypso bulbosa
common twayblade
‘ Neottia ovata
Clade: Monocots > Order: Grass > Family: Cattail
Cattails are common marshland plants

k with flat leaves and flowerheads that
be look like a "hot-dog-on-a-stick". ;
Re The male flowers are atthe top \
iS of the stalk, but wither away
K after losing their pollen. Then
: the female flowerheads mature ,
agin into the familiar "cattail".
male flower
female flower
ae
tn
ES — = = 4) Se 4 ~ J =!
narrowleaf cattail = sey NA ey be 7 ff cattail —

h OE Li Typha angustifolia Ss = ne Typha latifolia
ee
Cattail Family— Typhac €de (Including the Bur-reed Family—Sparganiaceae)

The cattail is a distinctive swamp plant with its long, slender, flat leaves and a seedhead that looks like a hot
dog on a stick. The seedhead starts developing early in the season; at first it looks like two hot dogs on a stick. The
top portion is comprised of thousands of minute male flowers. It produces pollen for about two weeks early in the
summer. Cattails are cross-pollinated by the wind, so the sepals and petals have been reduced to minute threads,
bristles, and scales around each of the tiny flowers. There are 2 to 5
stamens in each flower. This upper hot-dog-on-a-stick withers away
through the summer and eventually drops off. The female part of the
stalk is also comprised of thousands of minute flowers. The ovary is
positioned superior and consists of a single carpel, producing one tiny
seed. There are a great many such flowers, often producing 200,000+
seeds from a single head. They are carried away in the wind by the fluffy
cattail down when the seed heads are broken apart.
Genetic evidence places bur-reed (Sparganium) within the Cat-
tail family, rather than as an independent family. The flowerheads are
round, but develop with male and female flowers in separate heads like
cattails, with male flowers above the female flowers. The flowers of either
sex have 3 to 6 membranous “tepals” (meaning sepals or petals). Male
flowers have 3 or more stamens. Each female flower produces a single
seed. Worldwide, there are 2 genera in the Cattail family, listed here,
and about 28 species.
Key Words:
Aquatic plants with “hot-dog-on-a-stick” flower heads.
Sparganium—bur-reed (15/10/5) * The roots and bulbous stem bases are edible
like cattails (Olsen), as are the male flowers and pollen (Judd).
Typha—cattail (13/3/2) * In addition to seeds, cattails spread by starchy hori-
zontal underground stems called rhizomes. The rhizomes grow a foot or more
from the parent plant, then send up an aerial shoot that looks like a separate
plant. One cattail seed planted in a tank spread to a diameter of ten feet in a
single season, forming ninety-eight aerial shoots, ranging from a few inches
simplestem bur-reed to a few feet in height (Yeo). See Foraging the Mountain West or The Forager’s
Sparganium erectum Harvest for details on harvesting and preparing this wondrous edible plant.
204
Clade: Monocots > Order: Grass > Family: Rush
Rush Family—Juncaceae
The plants of the Rush family
might best be described as “lilies turned
to grass.” These are grassy-looking plants
with non-showy flowers, found growing
in damp soils or around the perimeter
of ponds and lakes. But look close and
you will see that the flowers are lily-like,
with 3 sepals, 3 petals and 6 (sometimes
3) stamens surrounding a pistil with a
3-chambered ovary and a 3-parted stigma.
The ovary is positioned superior and ma-
tures as a capsule.
Worldwide, there are about 8 genera
and 400 species, mostly of Juncus. Two
genera are found in North America, as
listed below. Be sure to read about the
Sedge and Grass families as well.
Members of the Rush family are
well represented in the fossil record as far
back as the Cretaceous period, mostly
because the plants grow in wet habitats
where fossils are made. The vegetation
is tough enough to fossilize well, and it
leaves recognizable imprints in the mud.
Key Words:
“Lilies turned to grass.”
Juncus—tush (220/120/28) * The seeds
of at least some species were used as 6 stamens
food. An edible sugar may be found 3 petals
on top of some plants as well. Me- —~3 sepals
dicinally, a tea of the plant may have
emetic qualities (Moerman). Some
species are used for weaving baskets common rush
Rush Family
and chair bottoms. Juncus effusus
Luzula—woodrush (80/29/6) The seeds Rushes are grass-like plants, but look close and you will see small lily-like flowers with
of at least some species may be 3 green sepals, 3 green petals, 6 stamens, and a pistil with a 3-parted stigrma.
cooked and eaten (Fern).
205
Clade: Monocots > Order: Grass > Family: Sedge
Sedge Family 2 or 3 styles

or stigmas
/
sepals absent or
some genera have
reduced to scales,
unisexual flowers
bristles, or hairs
common spikerush yellow flatsedge
CB Eleochanis palustris
\ iS
avinftadge 8 Wee
Carex canescens
Sedge Reais Cynarecane

“Sedges have edges. Rushes are round. Grasses are hollow. What have you found?” This common rhyme can
help you remember the key differences between the Sedge, Rush, and Grass families. Most sedges have triangular
stems (“edges”), except for Scirpus, which has round stems. Sedges tend to grow in damp ground, often horieting
swamps and streams.
Sedges typically have small flowers with the sepals and petals completely absent, or reduced to scales, bristles,
or hairs. There are typically 3 stamens (sometimes 6 or 1). The ovary is positioned superior and consists of 2 or 3
united carpels, aborting all but one to form a single chamber. It matures as an achene (a dry seed) or a nutlet. The
fruit is either lens-shaped or three-sided, the shape dependent on the number of carpels. Worldwide, there are about
100 genera and 4,500 species. Twenty-four genera are found in North America. Members of the Sedge family gener-
ally have edible roots and seeds, although few are worth harvesting.
Key Words: “Sedges have edges.”
Carex—sedge (1500/580/121) * Medicinally, a tea of sedge roots is diuretic and diaphoretic. It contains silica, and could
irritate the kidneys, especially if they are already inflamed (Lust). I’ve experimented with harvesting the seeds of various
species of sedge. I gathered useable quantities from a couple species, but the seeds seemed so small and flat that they
did not seem digestible, even after extensive cooking. Sprouting may help.
Cyperus—flatsedge, chufa (600/100/4) Egyptians cultivated chufa (C. esculentus) for its starchy tubers. They can be eaten fresh
or cooked, or dried and made into flour (Hall). The tubers can also be roasted and used as a coffee substitute (Angier).
The invasive purple nutsedge (C. rotundus) is more bitter but also edible. Papyrus (C. papyrus) was manufactured by
stripping off the outer rind of the stems to expose the sticky, fibrous pith, which was cut into long strips. Strips were
placed with overlapping edges on a hard surface and covered by another layer placed at right angles, then pounded
together, mashing them into a single sheet, which was dried under pressure and later polished with a rounded object.
Eleocharis—spike rush, spike sedge (200/75/7) The seeds (Olsen) and tubers (Sturtevant) of at least some species are edible.
The Chinese water chestnut is E. dulcis.
Eriophorum—cotton grass (25/19/5) The roots of at least some species are edible raw or cooked (Moerman).
Scirpus—bulrush (300/22/6) * Some members of this genus are being shuffled into Schoenoplectus and other genera. Bul-
rush roots are somewhat similar to cattail roots, and used similarly. Flour can be obtained from the roots by drying,
pounding, and sifting out the fibers. Another method is to cook the roots into mush and then separate out the fibers.
The younger roots are rich in sugar; these can be bruised and boiled down to produce a syrup. The pollen can be col-
lected in season and used as flour. The seeds are reported to be edible (Hall), but I have found that they are not very
digestible, even after grinding through a flour mill and boiling as mush. Probably they just needed to mature a couple
_more weeks on the plants. Sprouting the seeds before cooking may help too.
Medicinally, the starchy roots may be used as a drawing poultice, especially if first soaked in a tannic acid
solution (Brown). Bulrushes can also be made into a sort of candle. First, carefully strip away the outer layer, revealing
the pith. Leave a narrow strip of the outside intact for structural support. Saturate the pith in some type of fat or oil,
such as lard, and the “rush light” is ready for use (Mabey).
206
Clade: Monocots > Order: Grass > Family: Grass
Grass Family— Poaceae (Gramineae)

Members of the Grass family have hollow flower stems with knee-
like nodes or joints, distinguishing them from the Sedge and Rush families,
as noted in this little ditty: “Sedges have edges. Rushes are}
round. Grasses have nodes where the leaves are found.” (See
the Sedge family an alternative version.)
Grasses are wind pollinated and lack the showy petals
and sepals of other flowers because they are do not need to
attract insects. The flowers typically have 3 (rarely 2 or 6)
stamens. The ovary consists of 3 united carpels forming a
single chamber. Two carpels are aborted. The ovary matures
as a single seed called a caryopsis (grain) or rarely an achene
(a dry seed) or a berry. The flower is contained by modified
leaves called bracts. These are the chaff that is later winnowed
out of harvested grain.
Worldwide, there are about 650 genera and nearly 10,000 species
oat blossom of grass. About 230 genera and 1,000+ species appear in North America.
Avena spp.
Cereal grains belong to this family, including wheat (Triticum), rice
MN (Oryza), wild rice (Zizania), corn (Zea), oats (Avena), barley (Hordeum),
i and rye (Secale). Millet is a generalized term for grains from several genera
Grass Family including Echinochloa, Pennisetum, Eleusine, Panicum, and Setaria. The
seeds of virtually all other grasses are also considered edible, if they are not
infected by the ergot fungus. A notable exception is rye grass (Lolium), which is used as a sedative and vasodilator.
It is considered poisonous in excess (Lust).
Some grasses are also a source of sugar. Sugar cane (Saccharum), corn (Zea) and
Sorghum are processed commercially for sugar. The concentrations of sugar are usually
found in the roots or the base of the stalks. Grasses can also be eaten as greens, except that
the cellulose isn’t digestible. Chew up the grass, swallow the juice, and spit out the fibers.
Chewing on the immature seed heads, in particular, is an excellent way to get a health-
ful and dose of vitamins and minerals. Note, however, that some grasses produce cyanide
compounds as they wilt.
Key Words: Grassy plants with

knee-like nodes on hollow flower stems.
Ergot Fungus: Be sure to inspect the seeds of all grasses for the presence of ergot
fungus (Claviceps purpurea or C. paspali) before harvesting for food. Ergot consumes the
grass seeds, forming a black or purplish powder. Ergot can stimulate uterine contractions
and abortions. A derivative of ergot is used as a medicine for migraine and cluster headaches.
Ergot is also a source of LSD.
Ergot contamination in cereal grains can be extremely dangerous. C: paspali affects
the nervous system, causing trembling, staggering, and paranoia. The witch hunts of Salem,
Massachusetts in the 1600s are believed to have been connected with ergot contamination
in stored grains. Many people were burned at the stake by the Puritans running around ergot fungus
on LSD. C. purpurea, on the other hand, restricts the blood flow to the extremities, slowly
killing the flesh on the fingers, toes, and ears, with long-term consumption. Gangrene
bacteria, similar to botulism, rots away the dead tissues, often forming a foul gas.
A group of religious medics torched the rotting flesh off the victims and prayed
they lived. This group adopted St. Anthony as their patron saint, and the disease came to
be known as St. Anthony’s fire. In 1916 federal government regulations restricted the use
of ergot-infested grain to .3% of weight for making flour. This virtually ended the disease |
of ergotism in this country.
207
Harvesting and Winnowing Wild Grains

Most grass seeds are edible, but often too small to harvest or process
efficiently. Small seeds do not grind well on a metate or swell and turn to mush
when cooked as hot cereal, so they tend to pass through the digestive tract
intact. The ideal grasses have big seeds, much heavier than the surrounding
chaff. This makes it easier to blow the chaff away, while keeping the seeds.
There are three main techniques for harvesting cereal grains with
crude implements. One method is to simply strip the whole seed heads by
hand, collecting the material in a container. Another method is to beat the
seed heads with a stick, catching the seeds in a pan or tarp. The third method
is to cut the whole stalks, place them on a tarp, then beat the seeds out. The
plants can be dried on the tarp to make the seeds drop more easily.
Next, break the seeds free from the chaff. Rubbing the rough material
between the palms is sufficient for most grains. But some seeds are encased
in a husk that is impossible to rub free of the grain. These seeds are ground
up, husk and all, for a high-fiber cereal. Also, a few kinds of grass seeds can
be parched and then rubbed to remove the husk. Grasses that are hairy or
sharp should be avoided, as they could cause irritation or injury to the throat.
Winnowing removes the chaff after it has been broken free from the
seeds. Winnowing is a bit like gold-panning, where you catch the weighty
metal and wash the lighter debris
away. In fact, Irecommend a gold-pan
for this process. Swirling the pan and
occasionally tossing the grain lightly
into the air brings the light chaff to
the surface, so it can be blown away.
Optionally, wait for a breezy day,
then toss the rubbed material into the
American sloughgrass
air, so that the seeds fall straight down Beckmannia syzigachne
ona tarp, buta light breeze carries the
chaff away. Any remaining bits of chaff are good roughage for digestion.
Harvested grains can be cooked whole as a hot cereal, or ground into
flour and used for bread or mush. Cooking them whole may reduce the labor
involved, but the grains must be cooked almost to mush or they will pass
through your system undigested. Very small seeds may not ever soften enough
to become digestible. Another alternative is to sprout the seeds. This makes
the material digestible, but converts much of the starch and oil content into
proteins. Some wild grasses that have a known history of use as cereal grains
include:
Achnatherum—tice grass, needle grass (75/32/10) Indian rice grass (A. hymenoides,
formerly Oryzopsis hymenoides) is common in the arid West. The grains are
large and easy to process.
Agropyron—crested wheatgrass (23/3/1) * The seeds are harvested with a seed
beater and ground on a metate for use as mush or flour (Olsen). Quackgrass
(A. repens) is now Elymus repens or Elytrigia repens.
Agrostis—bentgrass, redtop (220/35/12) The seeds are harvested with a seed beater
and ground on a metate for use as mush or flour (Olsen).
Beckmannia—sloughgrass (2/1/1) The seeds were eaten by Native Americans in
Utah (Sturtevant).
Bromus—bromegrass, cheat grass (150/70/11) * The seeds of many species of
cheatgrass bromegrass were eaten by Native Americans (Duke). Cheat grass (B. tectorum)
bromus tectorum
was introduced from Europe.
208
Deschampsia—hairgrass (30/10/3) Harvest seeds with a seed beater and grind on

a metate for use as mush or flour (Olsen).
Digitaria—crabgrass (300/27/2) *The seeds are a substitute for rice in Poland.
One plant can produce 150,000 seeds (Duke).
Echinochloa—barnyard grass, millet (20/12/2) *The seeds are harvested with a
seed beater and ground on a metate for use as mush or flour (Olsen). E. fru-
mentacea and E. esculenta are known as Japanese millet, grown as a cereal crop.
Elymus—wild rye, wheat grass, quackgrass (150/43/19) ©The seeds are harvested
with a seed beater or stripped by hand. They are winnowed and ground on a
metate for use as mush or flour (Olsen).
Festuca—fescue (450/41/8) *The seeds are parched to remove the husk, ground
into flour, or cooked as mush (Olsen). C2,
Glyceria—mannagrass (35/18/4) The is reported to be one of the better-tasting
grains found in the West. The seeds are gathered with a seed beater and win-
nowed to remove the chaff. They are used as a thickening for stews or ground
into flour (Olsen).
Hordeum—barley, foxtail barley (25/10/6) Cooking hulled (pearled) barley pro-
duces a mucilaginous substance, useful as a demulcent for a sore throat. It is
mixed with milk to soothe the stomach and intestines (Lust). Some wild species
are known to have been used by Native Americans (Duke).
Oryzopsis—tice grass (40/1/1) Many species formerly in this genus were moved
to Achnatherum (see above).
Panicum—switch grass (450/34/4) Several species of Panicum have been cultivated
for grain (Sturtevant).
Phalaris—canary grass (15/11/2) ¢ Preliminary tests indicate that reed canary grass
has excellent potential as a cereal crop. The season is very short, near the end
Timothy grass
of July, and I have not yet been able to do a timed study.
Phlieum pratense
Phleum—timothy grass (15/5/2) * Strip the seeds off by hand, or collect the whole
stalks and rub or beat the seeds out. They are easy to winnow, and are really
quite a beautiful seed. I hand-stripped the seed heads for my studies and came up with about one quart of rough yield
per hour. Twenty minutes of winnowing left me with over a cup of pure seed.
j \ . Poa—bluegrass (500/95/30) ¢Mature seeds can be harvested with a seed beater
for a short time before they drop (Olsen).
Setaria—bristlegrass, foxtail (100/25/4) The seeds are edible (Duke).
Sporobolus—dropseed (160/30/6) Sand dropseed (S. cryptandrus) was used to
make bread and porridge by the Apache, Hopi, and Navajo tribes.
Zizania—wild rice (4/3/1) Wild rice is native to northeastern states with cold
climates. The grain is collected by beating the seed heads over a boat. The
collected seeds are dried, then parched, rubbed and winnowed to remove
the husks. There are only a few days to collect the seeds upon maturity,
before they drop (Hall).
Other selected genera from the Grass family

Cymbopogon—lemon grass (55/2/0) Lemon grass (C. citratus) is native to India
and tropical Asia, but has been introduced to Florida and Hawaii. It is often
used as an ingredient in herbal teas.
Hierochloe—sweetgrass (30/4/1) Often burned as incense by Native Americans.
Phragmites—common reed (2/1/1) ¢ The young stalks or roots can sometimes
be processed for sugar by drying and beating it into a flour. This sugary flour
can be moistened and heated over the fire as a substitute marshmallow. The
seeds can be processed by searing off the fluff. Then grind sr seeds with
common reed the hull, for a high-fiber meal (Duke).
Phragmites australis
Sorghum—johnson grass (20/3/2) Introduced and highly invasive. The seeds
are edible. Some species were once widely grown for sugar. Plants that are
stressed from heat, drought, or frost are prone to producing cyanide (Duke).
Puccinellia—alkali grass (50/30/3) Alkali Grass grows in moist, but alkaline
environments, especially in cooler climates.
209
Botany in a Day
The Medicinal Properties of Plants

Knowledge and Knowing
A number of natural, unflavored foods were placed before a group of infants in a study. Over time, the in-
fants demonstrated the ability to select a nutritionally balanced diet for themselves from the selections at hand. If an
infant initially binged on starchy foods, he would later seek out foods high in protein. If at first he ate foods lacking
a particular vitamin, he would later eat what was needed to make up the deficit. Without any logical knowledge of
diet or nutrition, the infants demonstrated an innate ability to make healthy choices.
Similarly, my son Donald instinctively treated himself with herbs as a toddler. He was covered in mosquito
bites after we left a window open overnight. At breakfast, he wiped his oatmeal all over his face to soothe the bites.
The slimy or “mucilaginous” property of the oatmeal was ideal to take away the itch.
Unfortunately, we lose our instincts very quickly as we grow up. Our parents teach us which foods are good
for us, and if we choke them down we are rewarded with foods that are bad for us. Even without this perverse sense
of dietary rewards, we learn language and logic, and ultimately lose our innate abilities. We eat from the fruit of
Knowledge and leave the Garden. We acquire Knowledge, but we lose our Knowing.
If we attempt to return to the Garden, it is ‘often with notebook in hand. Scientists, for Sines have
observed chimpanzees instinctively seeking out medicinal plants when ill. Researchers follow chimps around in the
jungle and take note when one significantly alters its behavior, stops eating, and starts consuming different herbs.
Those herbs are sent to a lab for analysis in the hopes of finding new and beneficial drugs for people.
The study of edible and medicinal herbs and Stone Age skills (which I also teach) is an attempt, in part, to
get back into the Garden. It is an effort to tune into nature, to harvest from the abundance, to live healthy, and to be
“one with nature.” Those of us who pursue this goal are on a path of Knowledge, picking up pieces of information
that will allow us to again reconnect with the whole of nature. Unfortunately, it is impossible to reassemble the whole
by picking up its pieces. Through Knowledge we can achieve a relatively balanced life in harmony with nature, but
it is very different from the experience of our ancestors. It is still the path of fragmented Knowledge.
We might guess at the nutritional needs of an infant and provide a carefully balanced meal based on reason,
but it can never be as good as what the infant innately knows. We might come close on the obvious, major nutrients,
vitamins, and minerals, but there are nearly infinite micronutrients and minerals that we can never fully comprehend.
Even if we could plan out a perfectly balanced diet in theory, the reality is that every individual is different with needs
that are completely unique to him- or herself.
Fragmented knowledge is not all bad. There are life-
Nearly forty percent of our pharma- threatening ailments that neither infants nor apes are able
i : : eae to treat, ando t l i i
ceuticals: contain constituents originally °° “*0 Mw ou aces ot rane co nee
simple as dysentery (severe, bloody diarrhea). Science has
found in herbs. developed heroic procedures to| save people from serious
injuries and illness. It makes the difference between life
and death for people all over the world. Science has also given us the ability to isolate and often synthesize certain
compounds from medicinal plants. Nearly forty percent of our pharmaceuticals today contain constituents originally
found in herbs.
Those of us with an interest in herbalism are often drawn to it because it is less fragmented than conventional
medical science. Herbalists point out that there is a difference between using a whole herb versus using a single ac-
tive constituent isolated from it. Some plants have a remarkable record of successful use, yet modern science cannot
isolate any single constituent to account for the effects. Herbalists claim that it is the action of multiple constituents
working together, sometimes from multiple herbs.
Similarly, herbalists can treat certain conditions that medical doctors are unable to even diagnose—because
210
the doctors cannot isolate any specific ailment. People may go to the doctor feeling lousy, but the M.D. might not
find anything wrong with them. These “subclinical” conditions are the realm where herbalists excel. Herbalists can
use whole plants and life-style changes to promote more efficient functioning of the body’s systems, so that the body
is better able to help itself.
Herbalism has its place, just as Western medicine or acupuncture have theirs. All are ultimately fragments
belonging to the whole. Each can achieve independent results that are beyond reach of the others, and none is com-
plete in itself. An individual must shop around and find what seems to work best for a particular situation. More
importantly, an individual must learn to feel and intuit a direction. It is not enough to merely seek treatment after
becoming ill. The path of good health is to intuitively select
what the body needs at each moment to maintain well-being. , ; :
In pursuit of good health, many people have also Herbalism has its Ltlace, ASE GS
turned to Eastern philosophies or other sources to find a Western medicine or acupuncture have
“natural diet.” But it seems like every health guru has their —¢hezrs. Al] are fragments belonging to the
own formula for a true “natural diet.” Each guru promotes . .
; Pets epnes
their own strict diet of what you can and cannot eat to be
whole. Each can achieve independent re-
healthy and live naturally. But these diets are not natural at ults that are bey ond reach of the others,
all, as they are products of fragmented thinking. These diets and none ts complete in itself.
teach you to eat from the outside, with Knowledge, instead
of from the inside, with Knowing.
It is my hope that this book will help you build on your inner Knowing. The process is quite logical, but
the results can be surprisingly intuitive. For instance, as you study plants, you will learn to recognize patterns in
appearance, smell, taste, and chemistry. With practice, however, the process of recognition becomes more and more
automatic. You will discover that you often know a plant, even if you have never seen it before in your life. You will
often know the edible and medicinal uses of a plant even before you know its name.
Keep in mind, however, that this guide is intended to identify plants and their properties only. There is a big
difference between learning the properties of a plant and knowing how and when to apply them to the human body.
Diagnosing an ailment and prescribing medicine requires, in essence, a “Field Guide to the Body,” and no guide
to plants can provide an adequate substitute. But for starters, |recommend Christopher Hobbs’ book, Foundations
ofHealth: Healing with Herbs & Foods (ISBN: 0-9618470-8-5). The book rings true to the herbalists’ axiom that a
healthy digestive system makes for a healthy body. The book is an excellent resource for understanding and facilitat-
ing the digestive processes.
About Edible, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants

Botany in a Day covers edible, medicinal, and poisonous plants. Given my interest in wilderness survival
skills, I tend to think from the belly and emphasize edible properties when applicable. I often leave out the medicinal
properties of a plant to leave room for its edible uses. But overall, there are far more medicinal plants than edible
ones, so the majority of the text focuses on medicinal properties.
In fact, all plants are medicinal in some context, regardless of whether or not they are otherwise considered
edible or poisonous. For example, oatmeal, potato soup, or chicken soup are all foods, but are sometimes used as
mild: medicines. On the other end of the spectrum, water hemlock (Cicuta)—the most poisonous plant in North
America—was also once used medicinally. A piece of the root the size of a small marble is enough to kill a person.
Some people say that just the juice on the knife after cutting through the root is enough to kill a person. And yet, in
very minute doses, water hemlock has been used medicinally. Not all of the patients survived.
Fortunately, there are surprisingly few truly poisonous plants to threaten the novice forager. There are only
a few plants in North America that are potent enough to kill a normal, healthy adult. People do die from eating wild
plants sometimes, but it always the same half-dozen plants—out of tens of thousands of different species. Learn these
few poisonous plants well, and it is relatively difficult to seriously hurt yourself with the others. Fortunately, most
poisonous plants taste bad, so you are unlikely to eat enough of one to cause harm.
From the perspective of a person looking for medicinal plants, however, there are many more potentially
poisonous plants. If you are looking for that magic herb to cure what ails you, then you are likely to ingest plants
that you would not otherwise touch as food. In addition, many herbal concoctions are concentrated, potent extracts
211
Botany in a Day
of otherwise relatively benign herbs, and we Americans are prone to overdosing. As herbalist Robyn Klein puts it, we
tend to think, “Ifa little is good, more is better!” We pour all kinds of toxins down the hatch in the name of good
health. Most herbs are quite safe when used properly, but people can die from overdosing on concentrated herbal
extracts.
When it comes to learning about the edible and medicinal uses of plants, it is often assumed that our ancestors |
figured it out entirely through trial-and-error. There are hundreds ofthousands ofplant species in the world, and we
assume our ancestors approached each specimen without prior insight, eventually discovering by pure chance what
was edible or not, and what medicinal effects every plant has.
But in reality, there are only a few basic constituents com-
There are only a few basic con- mon throughout the plant kingdom, and most of them are
stituents common throughout the plan t recognizable with the five senses. You can learn to determine
kingdom psy Dampers of them are recogniz- the uses of many plants without ever knowing their names.
For instance, suppose you chew up a leaf and get
>
;
ve senses. You can learn to
able with the ft the sensation of “cotton mouth.” Your mouth seems to run
determine the uses of many plants without out of saliva, a good indicator for tannic acid, one of the
ever knowing their names. most prevalent plant constituents. Once you learn to recog-
nize this constituent and know what it is used for, then you
know the approximate use of thousands of similar plants
around the world. But don’t go around randomly sampling the greenery. For safety, it is important to know what
every plant is before you put it in your mouth. At the very least, be sure about what a plant isv*. If you can rule out
every lethal plant in your area, then you may be able to experiment more liberally with other plants. The goal is to
become your own teacher.
In many herbal classes, the students often follow the instructor around copying down precise recipes and
uses for each plant along the way, but the instructors often gained their knowledge through direct experimentation.
When ill, they might try many different plants to see what
works. The result is that each herbalist has a unique recipe
and different uses for any given plant. This is one of the
reasons that herbalism has not been accepted by the medical
establishment; to the outsider, the prescriptions and dosage
seem completely arbitrary and inconsistent.
Most herbalism is simple and straightforward. Tannic
acid, for example, has an astringent effect. The acid binds with
proteins, drawing water out of the cells, and causing tissues
to constrict. This is a quantifiable effect, and it can be used
medicinally for hundreds of different situations, from drawing
closed an open wound to helping dry out the bowels in cases
of diarrhea. As you learn this broad picture you will develop
a much more flexible knowledge of herbalism.
Most herbalists prepare herbs as alcohol tinctures and
other herbal extracts. Tinctures are useful because the alcohol
dissolves out medicinal constituents that are not water-soluble,
significantly increasing the potency of the herbal preparations.
Personally, I prefer using herbs without tincturing,
and I have often had better results when I just chewed on
raw hunks of root, or drank medicinal teas, than when I have
used tinctures. For these reasons, I have intentionally avoided
including formulas, recipes, or dosage for using medicinal
herbs. * peppermint
Mentha piperita
I would rather help you gain the ability to think and Mint Family
intuit for yourself. You will not be limited to any set of recipes
or uses, but you will be able to experiment for yourself and
see what works. This is the essence of true herbalism.
212
Plant Properties
The allure of Western science is great, and modern herbalists have become increasingly focused on frag-:
mented knowledge—the specific constituents of the plants. Everyone wants to know what the active constituent
s
are in the plants they are using. Some plants may have pages worth of constituents, and we want to know what they
are and what they do in the body. Sometimes it is helpful to know what is happening at the molecular level to better
understand and communicate why a certain herb is used in a certain way. But there are so many variables to deal
with when you break a plant apart into its constituents that the information gained is often inaccurate. For example,
in earlier editions of this book I wrote that the immunostimulating properties of Echinacea and several other herbs
were due to their polysaccharide content. It was hypothesized that these complex sugars looked similar to cell walls of
bacteria, thereby stimulating the immune system into action.
That hypothesis has since been rejected, but the concept is
still referenced in the herbal literature.
The greatest danger in pursuing plant constituents
is that some herbal products on the market are no longer
representative of the whole plants they were derived from.
Partly there is a problem with adulteration, where companies
either knowingly or unknowingly substitute other herbs for
those on the package label. In addition, certain constituents
may be highly concentrated through the extraction process.
The whole plant may be harmless, but a strong dose of one
of its chemicals can be dangerous.
Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), for instance, is a
benign plant as a whole, but individuals have died from
overdosing on pure pennyroyal oil, used to cause abortions.
These kind of extracts are hardly herbal medicine. They are
pharmaceutical concoctions derived from plants fragmented
into their constituents. They can be used with remarkable
results by expert hands, but are sometimes dangerous for
amateurs to utilize. A few words on the label can not begin
to accurately prescribe proper conditions for use. ; pennyroyal
Hedeoma
Even seemingly benign herbal supplements can have pulegioides
side effects. They might initially energize you, only to cause bennyeval Mint Family
withdrawals when you stop taking them. Some supplements Mentha pulegium
are more like pharmaceuticals than herbs. Mint Fart
For the purposes of traditional herbalism, there is
rarely a need to know all the individual constituents of a plant. Herbalism is rooted in the basic properties, such as
astringent, mucilaginous, or aromatic. You can often learn all you need about the active ingredients of a plant with
your senses. For instance, plants with white, milky sap contain some type of /atex. Plants that form suds when beaten
in water usually contain saponin. Aromatic plants contain volatile oils. Plants with a clear, slimy juice are considered
mucilaginous. It is pretty basic stuff!
Nevertheless, I have included explanations for more specific plant properties. For instance, there are some
thirty thousand known volatile oils, which can be consolidated into a dozen or so main groups based on their chemi-
cal structure. Any one plant may be chemically dissected into hundreds, even thousands of distinct volatile oils and
other constituents. Fortunately, you do not need to learn every individual volatile oil, or even their chemical groups,
because they tend to have roughly similar effects on the body. It is helpful to understand that not all volatile oils are
equal, yet learning each of these constituents may ultimately teach you less about the plant, not more.
Keep the big picture in mind and stick to the basics as much as possible. Do not focus too much on any one
chemical property, or you will begin to open a Pandora's box of new questions and fragments. Each individual sub-
stance may have different uses on its own than when combined with the whole of the plant. It is the overall pattern
of constituents within a plant that is most important. The specific definitions presented on the following pages are
like a crutch to help you get around. Accept the broader definitions without trying to understand their intricacies.
You must eventually throw away the crutch of Knowledge and use your Knowing.
213
Botany in a Day
Carbohydrates
The basis of all sugars are the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The word carbohydrate is derived
from these three words, and is used for any type of sugar. Plants make sugars from air, water, and sunlight. They use
the sun’s energy to break apart H,O (water) and CO, (carbon dioxide), and to recombine these elements into CH,O
(sugar) and O, (the oxygen we breathe). These carbohydrates are a means of storing energy. We eat the cotinalipedexins
and release the energy, allowing the molecules to revert to H ,O and CO,. Enzymes in our saliva break the carbohy-
drates down into simple sugars. Thus, chewing food longer can bring out the true sweetness. Complex sugars that
are improperly digested can ferment in the gut and cause gas.
Starch: Plants like potatoes and cattails store energy in their roots in the form of starchy carbohydrates. This
energy reserve is built up over the course of the summer, then used to accelerate growth in the spring. Most seeds
also include a starch reserve called the endosperm. Most starchy roots and seeds are edible, but some species contain
dangerous alkaloids or acrid substances. Starchy roots can be used medicinally as drawing poultices to absorb toxins
or to draw down an inflammation. The effectiveness of these poultices can often be increased by soaking the starchy
roots in tannic acid first. 7
Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are simple sugars, including glucose, fructose, and galactose. These
sugars are metabolized through digestion for energy. They have no known medicinal functions.
Disaccharides: When two simple sugars are combined they are called a disaccharide. Sucrose, for example,
is made of a unit of glucose and a unit of fructose. Maltose is a combination of two units of glucose. Lactose is made
of glucose and galactose. Most disaccharides are easily broken down through digestion into monosaccharides, and
then used for energy. Some disaccharides are indigestible and become “roughage” in our systems. An oligosaccharide
is a combination of two to ten sugar molecules.
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made of many sugar units. Wood is made of
one form of polysaccharide called cellulose. .
Inulin: The word “inulin” is often confused with the unrelated word “insulin.” Inulin is a non-
digestible carbohydrate that can be converted to fructose through extended exposure to heat and moisture. Under-
cooked inulin can produce copious gas in the gut. Diabetics are able to eat fructose, and therefore inulin-rich foods.
Inulin is usually found in roots and is especially abundant in the Aster family. Dandelion roots are roasted to break
the inulin down into sweet-tasting fructose. Jerusalem artichoke tubers (Helianthus tuberosus) are sweetest the day
after they are cooked. The onion (Allium), blue camas (Camassia), and many other bulbs are also rich in inulin.
Mucilage: Mucilage is a slimy, moist polysaccharide found in Aloe vera and many other herbs. It is
especially useful for mild burns and sunburns. The fluid between your body cells is a mucopolysaccharide hydrogel.
Polysaccharides help strengthen this hydrogel after damage. Muci-
laginous plants are typically described as emollient when it is used
externally on irritated skin, and as demulcent when used internally, as
for soothing a sore throat. Mucilage has a mildly expectorant quality,
secs malloc ies probably by increasing the sliminess of the phlegm enough to release
Plantain Family it. Mucilage is sometimes used as a bulk laxative. Mucilage also coats
the intestinal tract, reducing irritation and sensitivity to chemicals,
acids, and bitters. The Cactus, Mallow, Flax, Purslane, and Borage
families are all high in mucilage. Mucilage is also found in members
of the Plantain, Violet, and Rose families.
Pectin: Pectins are complex polysaccharides used medici-
nally for ulcers, wounds, and intestinal problems, such as diarrhea.
Kaopectate is a commercial remedy for diarrhea that includes pectin.
Pectin also contains calcium and phosphorus, bound with a strong
electrical charge that attracts toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and
radioactive compounds. The toxins are then eliminated through the
bowels. Apples and some other fruits theoretically contain enough
pectin to jell without adding commercial pectin. Pectin is especially
found in fruits of the Rose family, but also in citrus fruits (Rutaceae),
and in the Barberry, Mallow, and Aster families.
214
Gum: Gums are similar to mucilage, but thicker and more sticky. Gums are commonly used as
stabilizers in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food-processing industries. Gums prevent other ingredients from
separating out of a mixture. Agar gum appears on the labels of many products. It is extracted from a seaweed of the
same name. Gums are present in the Pea family and especially common in the Aster family.
Glycosides
A glycoside is a sugar combined with a non-sugar (a-glycone) compound. Herbalists are most interested in
the aglycone part; the sugar itself has little therapeutic value. In fact, other than saponins, most glycosides are inac-
tive until separated from the sugar component. Crushing a plant and soaking it in warm water is usually sufficient
for the plant’s own enzymes to break apart the glycoside and release the active constituents into the water, known as
hydrolyzation. Cold water may not activate the enzyme activity, while hot water can alter the chemistry, and in rare
cases, may produce toxic substances (Schauenberg).
Sulfur Glycosides: Sulfur glycosides, like glucosinolate and thiocyanate, contain nitrogen in combination
with sulfur. They are mostly found in the Mustard, Caper, Nasturtium, and Mignonette families, as well as in onions
(Allium). Sulfur glycosides are acrid and irritating. In small amounts they stimulate digestion; in larger amounts they
can cause heartburn. These plants are often used as a rubifacient poultice; the glycosides irritate the area of applica-
tion, stimulating circulation and healing. Sulfur from these food sources is also useful for metabolizing and excreting
acetaminophen (found in drugs like Tylenol®), which can otherwise build up to toxic levels in the body.
In moderation, sulphur-rich plants can help prevent goiter, a swelling of the thyroid gland often caused by
iodine deficiency. Along with iodized salt, the popularization of mustard may have contributed to the virtual disap-
pearance of goiter in the modern world. However, excessive consumption of these plants can block the body's ability
to absorb iodine, and cause goiter.
Cyanide Glycosides: Cyanide appears in many forms with many names, including cyanophore, cyanogen,
hydrocyanic acid and prussic acid. Cyanide glycosides contain nitrogen in combination with hydrogen and carbon.
Cyanide occurs widely in nature, especially in the Rose, Honeysuckle, and Flax families. Cherry pits, for example,
contain cyanide in the form of a glycoside, known variously as amygdalin, laetrile, or vitamin B17 (see page 94).
Laetrile has been promoted as an anti-cancer agent, but with inconclusive results. An overdose of laetrile can cause
death. The cyanide reacts with an enzyme in the body called cytochrome oxidase, which normally links oxygen to
the individual cells. Cyanide interrupts this process and causes the individual cells to asphyxiate. Plants containing
cyanide are sometimes listed as sedative, because they literally choke off the metabolic processes.
The body handles trace amounts of cyanide by adding a molecule of sulfur to create thiocyanate (see Sulfur
Glycosides above). But excess dosage overwhelms and poisons the body. Chronic consumption of trace amounts will
rob the body of sulfur and iodide, leading to thyroid disorders (Klein).
Phenol Glycosides: Phenols come in different forms, but all are carbon-based. Phenols are a component in
the other glycosides to follow, including flavonoids, coumarins, anthraquinone, cardiac glycosides and saponins.
Simple phenols: Simple phenols like salicylin (e.g.; salicylic acid, willow, aspirin) are an important
class of their own. Salicylic acid affects the thermoregulatory centers and peripheral blood vessels to relieve fevers, pain,
and inflammation. Simple phenols are especially useful for treating urinary tract infections, arthritis, rheumatism,
and other inflammations. Some forms pass through the digestive tract before they are hydrolyzed (that is, separating
the active component from the sugar) in the presence of alkaline urine in the bladder. Hydrolyzation forms potent
disinfectants, especially useful for urinary tract infections. If the urine is acid, then sodium bicarbonate must be taken
with the herbs for hydrolyzation to occur. Simple phenols are found in the Willow, Birch, and Heath families, plus
Spiraea and pear (Pyrus) of the Rose family.
Flavonoids: Flavonoid glycosides include flavones, flavonals, flavonones, isoflavones, chalcones,
and aurones. Plants that are rich in flavonoids have been used as dyes. The word “flavonoid” comes from the Latin
hidden
“flavus,” meaning yellow. Red and yellow fall colors are flavonoids, which are always present in the leaves, but
but toxic to microorgani sms. Plants produce
by chlorophyll until fall. Flavonoids are safe for people and animals,
but
them to protect against disease. Many flavonoids are known to have antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties,
they are especially valued as antioxidants to help prevent free radicals.
In biology, free radicals are otherwise healthy cells that lose electrons at the molecular level. The cells become
oxygen molecules.
highly reactive and bind with anything that will balance out their charge, including damaging
20D
Botany in a Day
Antioxidants are foods or supplements, often rich in flavonoids, that provide a source of electrons to stabilize cells
before they are injured.
Flavonoids are generally diuretic and relieve cramping. They also affect the heart and circulatory system and
strengthen the capillaries. There are about 500 known flavonoids, including vitamins C, E, and P. Flavonoids are
found throughout the plant kingdom, but are especially concentrated in fruits, and particularly in wild berries.
Coumarins: There are more than 100 varieties of coumarins grouped into several general types: hydroxycou-
marins, methoxycoumarins, furanocoumarins, pyranocoumarins, and dicoumarols. Coumarins have a sweet smell.
Medicinally they have anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. The Indian breadroot (Psoralea) and sweet
clover (Melilotus) of the Pea family contain coumarins, as do many plants of the Parsley family.
Dicoumarols act as anticoagulants by destroying vitamin K, which is normally produced by bacteria in the
small intestine and used by the liver in the manufacture of prothrombin, a blood-clotting protein. Dicoumarol is used
to reduce blood clots in heart patients. Excess consumption can prevent the scabbing of clots, or lead to spontaneous
internal bleeding. Concentrated doses of dicoumarols are used in rat poison. Dicoumarols are formed when sweet
clover (Melilotus) is fermented. -
Furanocoumarins can have a phytotoxic effect, causing a rash when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet light.
Juice from celery leaves, and other Parsley family plants, can make the skin sensitive to sunlight. Furanocoumarins
are often toxic to fish.
Anthraquinone Glycosides: Anthraquinone glycosides have purgative (strongly laxative) properties.
The glycosides are digested by bile, absorbed by the small intestine, and passed on to the large intestine hours later
as purgatives. These glycosides are found in diverse, mostly unrelated plants.
Anthraquinone glycosides are violent purgatives, especially those found in senna (Cassia) and Aloe vera. They
can cause blood to be released with the stools. However, buckthorn (Rhamnus) also contains a form of cyanide that
gives the laxative a calming effect, so it can be used for,several days without irritation. Rhubarb root (Rheum), which
also contains anthraquinone glycosides, is considered relatively gentle. Cuscuta and Hypericum contain this purgative
glycoside, but the latter is fat-soluble, not digestible by the bile, so it has no effect. Anthraquinones are sometimes
associated with churning or gripping pain in the bowels, so spicy herbs like ginger (see Volatile or Essential Oils) are
often taken with the laxatives for their antispasmodic property. Note that excess use of laxatives can weaken the bowels
and result in laxative dependency.
Cardiac Glycosides: Cardiac glycosides stimulate heart contractions. This property can be useful
in cases such as water retention caused by a weak heart and kidneys. Anything that helps remove excess fluids from
the body is known as a diurectic, in this case achieved through increased heart function. Foxglove (Digitalis), lily-of-
the-valley (Convallaria), and many plants in the Dogbane/Milkweed family are especially rich in cardiac glycosides.
Other plants with cardiac glycosides include hellebore (Helleborus), pheasant’s eye (Adonis), water lily (Nymphaea),
and hedge hyssop (Gratiola). However, cardiac glycosides are potentially very dangerous and should not be used
internally by amateurs.
Saponin: Saponin is a glycoside poison. It destroys the membranes of red blood cells and releases
the hemoglobin. Fortunately, saponin is not easily absorbed by the digestive system, and most of what we eat passes
straight through the body. Saponin is widely found in plants, including many vegetables like beans, spinach, and
tomatoes. There are many forms of saponin, all with varying potency. Saponin breaks down with prolonged cooking.
Plants that contain saponin can usually be worked into a lather, and are often used as soap substitutes.
Saponins are effective at removing dirt but not oils. They are sometimes used as cleansers in cosmetics. Specific
plants that are rich in saponins include: yucca root (Yucca), buckbrush flowers and berries (Ceanothus), snowberry
(Symphoricarpos), bouncing bet (Saponaria), white cockle (Lychnis), horse chestnut (Aesculus), and Cyclamen.
Medicinally, saponins are sometimes used as irritants in the form of sneezing powders or emetics, but more
often to stimulate digestion. Saponin may be valuable in certain cases of arthritis where the pain is combined with
indigestion or headaches. Saponins clean the intestinal walls and facilitate the body's use of certain substances like
calcium and silicon. Saponins also have a diuretic effect.
Saponin-rich plants are often used as fish poison. Fish assimilate saponin directly into the blood stream
through their gills, destroying their red blood cells. Adding a significant quantity of a saponin-rich herb into a small,
still pond may effectively stun or kill the fish, without harming the fisherman who eats them.
216
Acids ;
Natural plant acids come in many different forms. A few common acids are described here.
Tannic Acid: An astringent is any acid substance that causes tissues to constrict. The most common natural
astringent is tannic acid. Gallic and malic acids are also astringents. The act of constricting tissues is medicinally
useful in a number of ways.
Internally, astringents close off secretions, especially of the digestive system, which is useful for “drying up”
diarrhea or dysentery (a severe, often bloody type of diarrhea). Astringents also tighten up ulcerated tissues, facilitat-
ing healing in cases of stomach ulcers and bloody urine.
Astringents tone and strengthen mucous membranes, such as in the urinary tract. Many plants with astringent
properties are also diuretic in nature, meaning they make you urinate more. The diuretic effect may be due in part to
the tannins drawing water out of the cells, but also to simple phenol glycosides (see Glycosides) that are often found
with tannic acid. Since acids are generally harmful to bacteria, astringent plants are often also listed as antiseptic or
antibiotic.
Externally, astringent plants are useful as a poultice or wash to heal cuts, eczema, and eruptions on the skin.
Astringent herbs are often listed as anti-inflammatory, useful for tightening up tissues in cases of swellings, sunburns,
pimples, blisters, sore throats, inflamed or tired eyes, or as a sitz bath after childbirth to speed the healing of inflamed
tissues. Through the act of tightening tissues, astringents act as a sort of toner or strengthener, useful as a facial toner
to reduce wrinkles or as a poultice to diminish varicose veins. Similarly, the leaves of astringent plants can be put in
shoes to tighten the skin and protect against blistering. Given that astringents cause wounds to tighten up and stop
bleeding, they are sometimes listed as hemostatics or coagulants.
‘Tannic acid is also used for tanning hides. That drying, puckering sensation you get when you taste an
astringent is the same action that works on a hide, drawing out the binders to make the hide more flexible. Over-
consumption of these tannins is potentially dangerous, and countries where black tea is popular tend to have high
rates of stomach cancer. Adding milk to tea reduces the tannin effect, since the tannins binds with milk proteins,
instead of proteins in thé stomach lining.
Oxalic Acid: The lemony-sour taste in rhubarb and many other plants comes from oxalic acid, also called
oxalate, while the true lemon taste comes from citronellal, the potent volatile oil found in lemons. Like other acids,
oxalate acts as an astringent when used as a wash for skin problems. But oxalic acid is much harsher than other
acids. Internally, it acts as an irritating stimulant to the digestive system. It irritates the system to increase, rather
than decrease, digestive secretions, which is helpful as a digestive aid for heartburn or constipation. Intermittent con-
sumption of oxalic acid is okay, but too much can excessively irritate the system, leading to diarrhea and potentially
hemorrhaging.
Most plants with oxalic acid are edible, with caution that long-term consumption may block the body's
ability to absorb calcium. However, wild plant researcher John Kallas suggests that concern over oxalates arose from
a study involving sheep and cows eating very large quantities of oxalate-rich plants. Human metabolism is very dif-
ferent, and most oxalates are excreted with the feces. Oxalates bind with calcium in the digestive tract, making both
unavailable for absorption, but this may be a naturally protective effect of the calcium to further reduce the absorp-
tion of oxalates. Interestingly, most plants that are rich in oxalic acid are also rich in calcium. The oxalate content of
rhubarb stems is actually higher than in the leaves. Kallas has not yet found a verified case of humans ingesting toxic
doses of oxalates. In addition, the human body converts excess quantities of vitamin C into oxalates that are filtered
through the kidneys and end up in the urine. The body’s own production of oxalates is greater than would ever be
consumed eating normal quantities of oxalate-rich plants.
There is also little evidence to link dietary oxalates with kidney stones. Kallas suggests that most people should
be able to consume as much oxalate-rich food as they want, although it is always prudent to be cautious, especially
if you are chronically undernourished in calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus, or if you have an existing abnormal
tendency to produce kidney stones. The Buckwheat, Woodsorrel, Purslane, and Amaranth/Goosefoot families include
plants that are rich in oxalic acid. Note that calcium oxalate crystals, such as those in the Arum family, can cause
physical damage if ingested.
Citric and Tartaric Acid: Citric and tartaric acids cleanse the mouth, stimulate saliva flow, and reduce the
number of cavity-causing bacteria. The acids are considered laxative because they are absorbed very slowly through
the intestines, so stools remain soft. Citric and tartaric acids are useful after surgery or in cases of hemorrhoids, ‘to
reduce muscle action of the lower abdomen. Citric and other plant acids can also bind with and remove heavy metals
217
Botany in a Day
and other toxins in the body. Citric acid is primarily found in the Citrus family (Rutaceae), but also in raspberries
and other fruits of the Rose family, plus members of the Grape family.
Formic Acid: Formic acid is a defensive mechanism used by biting ants and several members of the Stinging
Nettle family. Both ants and nettles inject the acid under the skin, causing temporary inflammation. Try applying an
astringent herb to take away the itch.
Formic acid is readily digestible, such that both the nettles and most ant species are edible raw or cooked.
Some people carefully fold or crush nettle leaves to avoid the stinging hairs and eat them raw, but it is far safer to
cook them as a delicious green. Medicinally, formic acid has been used as an irritant to stimulate healing in cases
of arthritis. The arthritic joints are whipped with stinging nettles. The resulting irritation improves circulation and
facilitates healing. This is a cure for the desperate!
Acrids
Acrid substances cause a hot, biting sensation on the tongue, much like horseradish. Taken internally in
moderate amounts, acrid herbs warm the body, dilate the blood vessels, decrease blood pressure, and equalize blood
flow to the extremities. For this reason, acrid plants are often listed as emmenagogues (menstrual stimulants), dia-
phoretics (which cause sweating), diuretics (which cause increased urination), and galactagogues (which increase milk
flow). The hot, acrid quality opens you up from the inside out.
Acrid herbs are sometimes used as expectorants to irritate the mucous
membranes and loosen phlegm. Larger doses can cause vomiting (emetic).
Caution is advised. Highly acrid herbs could harm the delicate tissues.
Externally, herbs with acrid properties are often used as irritating
poultices to stimulate healing under the skin, good for such ailments as
bruises, aches, or arthritis. An acrid mustard plaster on the chest can help
warm and stimulate congested lungs. Acrid poultices can even stimulate
activity in cases of mild paralysis, but be careful, because a strong poultice
can cause blistering if left in place too long.
Acrid plants are also used for warts. The plant juice is smeared on
the wart a few times each day until the wart disappears. Likewise, acrid
plants can be used as a hair rinse to get rid of lice. ;
Acrid poultices can even be used on external cancerous tumors. A
strongly acrid poultice is placed over the cancer to burn out the growth. The
body often encases cancerous cells to separate them from healthy ones, and
the acrid substances supposedly burns out everything within that casing,
leaving a hole that later heals over. This treatment is said to be extremely
painful.
The acrid substance in mustard, radish and horseradish (Mustard family),
garlic (Amaryllis family), and cow parsnip (Parsley family) comes from a
horseradish \
Armmoracia rusticana ~~
thiocyanate glycoside (see Glycosides). The Buttercup, Arum, and Iris families
Mustard Family ZZ also include many acrid plants.
Latex
Many plants have white, milky sap, which is typically a form of latex. Natural latex was originally the source
of rubber for making tires, until the industry switched to synthetic oil products. Plants with milky sap vary from bit-
ter to acrid, and deliciously edible to highly toxic. The Chicory or Dandelion subfamily of the Aster family includes
many mildly bitter herbs, excellent in salads for stimulating digestive secretions just prior to eating a big meal.
Plants with an acrid latex sap are used like other acrid substances (above), to irritate and thus stimulate the
body. Herbs with acrid latex sap can be taken to stimulate secretions of digestive acids to promote digestion or to
assist as a laxative. Latex-rich plants are sometimes used to irritate and stimulate (dilate) the bronchioles to aid in
fighting lung infections. Latex-rich plants are also used by women to stimulate lactose production (a galactagogue)
and menstruation (an emmenagogue). But caution is advised, since latex sap often contains dangerous alkaloids.
Acrid latex plants are also useful for removing warts. Put the milky sap of a plant on a wart, and the acridness
will eat away the growth. Do this multiple times a day until the wart disappears.
218
Alkaloids
There are approximately 5,000 known alkaloids. Alkaloids contain nitrogen and have a very basic (alkaline)
pH. Alkaloidal plants do not fully utilize all the available nitrogen for protein production, so the nitrogen circulates
in the sap or accumulates in parts of the plants in the form of alkaloids. Alkaloids are especially produced during
periods of rapid plant growth. Somehow the accelerated metabolism apparently uses the nitrogen less efficiently.
Overall, alkaloidal plants are more common—and more potent—in hot climates than cold ones.
Alkaloids mixed with acids form salts. Alkaloids usually end in a suffix such as -in; -ine, or -ane. They are
named after the plant they are discovered in. For example, the toxic alkaloid in water hemlock (Cicuta) is “cicutine.”
Alkaloids are often bitter to taste, and some are used to stimulate digestion, but many alkaloids also produce
a strong reaction in the nervous system. Alkaloids rarely affect the heart directly, but they may depress or excite the
central nervous system, affecting circulation, respiration, and blood pressure. Most alkaloids are water-soluble.
A narcotic is any alkaloid that depresses the central nervous system; they are toxic in excess. Narcotics are
especially used for their analgesic properties. An analgesic numbs the body's sense of pain, like opium or morphine
of the Poppy family. Herbs that depress the central nervous system are often utilized as sedatives. Some depressants
can cause hallucinations, including Datura and Hyoscyamus from the Nightshade family, but the toxicity varies from
one area to another, and a slight overdose causes death. Symptoms include an unquenchable thirst, dilation of the
pupils, delirium, hallucinations, convulsions, and coma.
Glycoside Alkaloids: Also known as “glycoalkaloids,” these alkaloids are most common in the Nightshade
family. Green potatoes and nightshade berries contain toxic solanine and chaconine..These alkaloids are harmless in
small amounts. A bitter or burning taste signifies higher concentrations. Poisoning can cause stomach pains, ulcers,
constipation or diarrhea, drowsiness, apathy, labored breathing, trembling, and ultimately paralysis, loss of conscious-
ness, and death.
Indole Alkaloids: There are over 1,200 indole alkaloids, with diverse medicinal applications. Ergotomine,
from the ergot fungus (see the Grass family) has been used as a vasoconstrictor for migraine headaches. Lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD), a hallucinogenic drug, was also originally derived from ergot fungus. Serotonin, tryptamine
(like tryptophan), and adrenaline are all indole alkaloids. Most indole alkaloids are found in the Dogbane, Madder,
and Logania (not covered in this text) families.
Quinoline Alkaloids: Quinine is an anti-malarial alkaloid of this group.
Isoquinoline Alkaloids: Morphine and several other narcotic, analgesic isoquinoline alkaloids are derived
from members of the Poppy family. Mescaline is the hallucinogenic alkaloid in peyote (Lophophora) of the Cactus
family.
An isoquinoline alkaloid that is non-narcotic is berberine from the Barberry family, also found in goldenseal
(Hydrastis) and gold thread (Copztis) of the Buttercup family. Berberine is extremely bitter, used especially to stimulate
liver function. It is strongly antiviral. It may also be effective against the parasite Giardia. Ipecac is another non-
narcotic alkaloid of this group, derived from Carapichea of the Madder family.
Purine Alkaloids: Purine alkaloids can stimulate production of many hormones, particularly adrenaline.
Caffeine is a purine-type alkaloid. In large amounts caffeine can lead to nervousness, insomnia, a rapid and irregular
heartbeat, elevated blood sugar and cholesterol levels, and heartburn (Tyler).
Pyrrolidine and Tropane Alkaloids: These alkaloids act on the central nervous system, blocking parasympa-
thetic nerve activity. Atropine, hyoscine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine come from the Nightshade family. Cocaine
also belongs to this group; it is derived from coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) of the Coca family. It is unrelated to the
source of our chocolate, cocoa (Theobroma cacao), from the Sterculia subfamily of the Mallow family.
Pyridine and Piperidine Alkaloids: These alkaloids tend to act first as an irritating stimulant, then as a nerve
paralyzer. Cicutine and coniine, from water hemlock and hemlock of the Parsley family, are extremely toxic, fast-
acting alkaloids of this group. They cause progressive paralysis of the nervous system and eventually death. Nicotine
from the Nightshade family is a similar alkaloid, but not as potent; smokers reduce their life spans by about eight
minutes per cigarette. Lobeline from the Harebell family also belongs to this group.
Pyrrolizidine and Quinolizidine Alkaloids: Many of these alkaloids are toxic to people and livestock.
Groundsel (Senecio) from the Aster family contains a pyrrolizidine-type alkaloid. Comfrey, houndstongue, and bor-
age from the Borage family contain lesser amounts of this alkaloid type. Apparently, the unsaturated forms are more
toxic than the saturated forms. Quinolizidine alkaloids are prevalent in the Pea family.
PINS)
Botany in a Day
Terpenoid Alkaloids: Some members of the Buttercup family, including Aconitum and Delphinium, contain
highly poisonous terpenoid alkaloids. The popular sedative valerian, from the Valerian family, also contains a terpe-
noid alkaloid.
Volatile or Essential Oils

Volatile oils are unstable, as the name implies.’ Plants with a strongly aromatic odor contain significant
quantities of these oils. Brush against them or crush a leaf, and the volatile oils vaporize into the air. Our culinary
spices are inherently rich in volatile oils.
Medicinally, volatile oils are spicy, stimulating, and warming, causing the body to open up and sweat (diapho-
retic or sudorific). This property can help you break a fever. A fever is the body's way of “cooking” the microorganisms
that cause infections. Using a diaphoretic herb can help raise a mild fever just high enough to “cook” a virus, ending
the fever. However, diaphoretics can be dangerous where there is already a high fever. Diaphoretics tend to be most
effective if used at the very onset of a cold. Volatile oils also have a decongestant effect, as you'll notice when your
nose runs after a spicy meal.
Warming the body also opens up the blood vessels, allowing blood to flow more freely. This means they have
a vasodilator effect, useful for relaxing the blood vessels in cases of hypertension or for stimulating delayed menstrua-
tion, called an emmenagogue. Intensely diaphoretic plants may even affect venereal diseases.
Diaphoretics can warm you up and make you sweat, but sweating is also the body's way of cooling itself.
Heat is carried away from the body as the sweat evaporates off the skin. Thus a diaphoretic herb can act as a refrig-
erant or febrifuge. It is no coincidence that hot, spicy food (like Mexican cuisine) originates in hot climates. Chili
peppers and jalapeno peppers contain volatile oils that really make you sweat, and that helps to cool you off even
when it is extremely hot out. Conversely, in cold climates we eat fatty foods like ice cream to give us calories to burn
for warmth. .
A hot tea of a spicy herb has a diaphoretic effect as the volatile oils are expelled through the pores of the skin.
The same tea served cold may have a diuretic effect, as the volatile oils are expelled through the urine.
Herbs with volatile oils are often listed as being anthelmintic, that is, they kill or expel worms (also called a
vermifuge). Similarly, aromatic herbs are often antibiotic or antimicrobial in character. They are also used externally
to kill lice and ringworm fungus.
Volatile oils are frequently listed as being carminative (dispels gas). Apparently, the volatile oils function
similar to bitters, stimulating secretions from the salivary, stomach, and intestinal glands to improve digestion. The
volatile oils also vaporize easily and may directly interact with and break down digestive gas.
Plants with volatile oils are sometimes listed as antidotal for eliminating poisons, such as from snakebite.
Apparently the increased sweating eliminates toxins through the skin. The effectiveness of this treatment is question-
able for serious poisons, and I have not listed specific antidotal plants in this text. Seek professional medical assistance
for such cases if in any way possible. Sweating is, however, a reliable means of cleansing and detoxing from ordinary
body pollutants.
Finally, some plants with volatile oils have mildly sedative and nerve-calming properties and may be described
as nervine and antispasmodic. The Aster, Dutchman’s Pipe, Birch, Cypress, Heath, Ginseng, Parsley and Mint families
all contain significant quantities of volatile oils. Many of these herbs may be dangerous during pregnancies, due to
their anthelmintic (worm killing) and emmenagogue (menstrual stimulating) properties. The most dangerous ones
are those that are also bitter (irritating). Note that medicinal plants rich in volatile oils often have a short shelf life
because the desired properties vaporize. Volatile oils and resins are best extractedin alcohol.
In greater detail, volatile oils are combinations of aromatic molecules. There are approximately 30,000 different
aromatic molecules found in plants, mostly comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be separated into
a number of subgroups according to their chemical make-up and their effects on the body. A plant might contain
just a few aromatic molecules belonging to one subgroup, or hundreds of aromatic molecules belonging to multiple
subgroups. Plants are usually grouped in whichever chemical category they contain the most of. Individual aromatic
molecules are typically named after the plant they predominately occur in. The suffix often indicates the chemical
subgroup an aromatic molecule belongs to. For example, peppermint plants (Mentha piperita), contain an alcohol
volatile oil named menthol. The name menthol comes from the root word of the mint genus combined with the -ol
suffix from alcohol. Menthol is a common ingredient in many cough drops. Listed below are a few of the common
chemical groups to which aromatic volatile oils belong.
220
Alcohols: Alcohol volatile oils are generally considered energizing and non-toxic. These are non-irritating
and safe to use. The suffix -ol generally indicates a member of this group or the phenol group.
Aldehydes: Aldehyde volatile oils are anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, sedative and may be irritating to the
skin. Citronellal is an aldehyde found in lemons, lemongrass, and other lemon-scented herbs. Cinnamon
contains
significant concentrations of cinnamic aldehyde.
Coumarins: Coumarin volatile oils can damage the liver, and may lead to photosensitivity. They also thin
the blood and act as anticoagulants. (Read more about coumarins under Glycosides).
Esters: Ester volatile oils are typically very fragrant. They are considered antispasmodic, antifungal, and
relaxing. Esters are the product of a reaction between an alcohol and an acid, forming an acetate.
Ethers: Ether volatile oils have antispasmodic, carminative, stimulant, expectorant, and antiseptic properties.
Ketones: Ketone volatile oils dissolve fats and mucus. Some are quite safe, but others can be toxic in excess.
The toxins seem to affect the nervous system, leading to convulsions, stupefaction, seizures or abortion. Junipers
(Thuja) of the Cypress family contain a toxic ketone volatile oil called thujone. Thujone is also found in wormwood
(Artemisia absinthium) and tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) of the Aster family. Pulegone is a similarly toxic ketone found
in pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). Hyssop (Hyssopus) also contains ketone volatile oils. Some plants with nontoxic
ketones include jasmine (Jasminum) and fennel (Foeniculum). The suffix -one often indicates a member of this chemi-
cal group.
Oxides: Eucalyptol is an oxide volatile oil found in the
Eucalyptus tree.
Phenols: Phenol volatile oils can be irritating to the skin and
toxic to the liver in excess. They should be used only in moderation.
Some plants that contain phenol volatile oils in varying quantities
include cloves, thyme, oregano, and savory. The suffix -ol generally
indicates a member of this or the alcohol group.
Sulfurs: Volatile oils containing sulfur are typically acrid,
like onions and radishes. (See Acrids and Sulfur Glycosides.)
Terpenes: Terpene volatile oils can be irritating to the skin.
They are sub-grouped according to the number of carbon atoms
they contain. Monoterpenes, including menthol, camphor, and
thujone, contain 10 carbon atoms. Sesquiterpenes such as azulenes
and bisabolol, contain 15 carbon atoms. Terpenes with 20, 30, and
40 molecules are rare in plants, with the 30- and 40-molecule ter-
penes being plant steroids and hormones. The suffix -ene generally
indicates a member of this group.
Resins
Plant resins are sticky, gummy substances like pine pitch.
Resins are formed from oxidized volatile oils; they are complex
compounds that form solids at room temperature. Resins do not i 8
contain nitrogen. They are insoluble in water, so organic solvents co ee
like alcohol are often needed to extract them from the plants. The Olive Family
digestive system produces some such solvents.
Resins are especially useful for their expectorant qualities
to help expel phlegm during a cold. Drink a warm tea of a resinous
plant and your throat becomes coated with the sticky substance. It protects tissues from irritation when coughing.
Moreover, the stickiness seems to slick up the passageways in the body, so phlegm can be more readily coughed up.
Resins typically contain potent volatile oils, such as the turpentine in fir trees. Resins thus have a warming
or stimulating property, useful when applied to arthritic joints. Internally, resins often have expectorant, diaphoretic,
and diuretic properties. However, plants with resins may lead to kidney troubles with excessive use. The resins do not
break down easily in the body, and they can irritate and plug tubules in the kidneys. The Pine, Cypress, and Aster
families are especially rich in resins.
2a
Botany in a Day
Bitters
Herbs with a bitter taste stimulate the body’s systems and are most commonly used as digestive aids. You
must taste the bitterness in your mouth for these to take effect. The bitter taste signals the nervous system to release °
digestive fluids all the way down, from saliva to gastric acid and bile. Sampling bitter herbs shortly before a meal
will help prepare your digestive system for the main course, which is good to help prevent indigestion. Consuming
bitter herbs after the fact, when you already have indigestion, can help your system catch up. It may seem odd to
use bitter herbs to increase acidity when already experiencing hyperacidity, but the bitters also stimulate the release
of bicarbonate from the liver, pancreas, and Brunner’s glands. Bitter herbs influence and balance the whole digestive
system, whereas most commercial remedies just neutralize the acid and impair the natural processes. Because bitter
herbs help stomach problems, they are often listed as stomachic.
Note that many astringent herbs seem to taste bitter, but they are not true bitters. We are accustomed to
such bland and sweet foods in our culture that many people cannot distinguish between bitter and astringent tastes.
If an herb dries out your mouth so that you are lacking saliva, then you are
sampling an astringent, not a bitter.
Bitters are also used as laxatives. Digestive fluids help loosen up the bowels
and relieve constipation. Stimulating digestion like this also stimulates muscle
contractions to help move matter through the bowels. A mild laxative is some-
times called an aperient. A strong laxative or purgative literally “purges” your
system, while a cathartic intensely stimulates bowel movement. Purgative and
cathartic herbs can be dangerous.
A third use of bitter herbs is to increase the flow of bile from the liver
to the gall bladder and thence into the small intestine. This stimulated flow
enhances the liver’s ability to evacuate toxins from the body. Herbs that help
the liver are often listed as hepatic.
Increasing the flow of bile also helps to break down fats. Consuming bitter
herbs as a regular part of the diet can help maintain a healthy system. Bitters
are especially helpful to revitalize the body after exhaustion, chronic disease,
or lack of appetite, and weakness of the digestive system. But also note that
bitter herbs can cool and contract the digestive system in some people, so spicy
herbs (rich in volatile oils) are often taken to counteract the effect.
Increasing the flow of bile also dilutes it, which is important to prevent
the formation of gallstones. Gallstones are formed when bile becomes con-
centrated in the gall bladder, and then essentially dries and precipitates into
salts, forming a salt crystal in the gall bladder.
Bitter principles are very common in herbs. The Gentian and Buckbean
Pine Barrens gentian families are especially rich in bitter principles. The Chicory or Dandelion
enn and Thistle subfamilies of the Aster family include many bitter herbs. The
Gentian Family ;
ot tA, Barberry family and a few members of the Buttercup family contain a potent
bitter alkaloid known as berberine. .
Gelatin | |
Gelatin is a type of protein. It is the substance that makes Jell-O® set. Gelatin is usually derived from animal
hooves and hides, but it is also found in a few plants, such as Smilax of the Greenbrier family. Some lichens also
contain gelatin. Powdered gelatin can be dusted over an open wound to stop the hemorrhaging.
Dee,
Bibliography
Bibliography
Books listed with a “*” were utilized as public domain sourcés of line art printed in the first five editions of
Botany in
a Day. This sixth edition features additional line art as well as a great many color illustrations, also from public
domain sources.
The artwork was accessed primarily through www. plantillustrations.org and www.delta-intkey.com. These
illustrations were
painstakingly edited, rearranged, and labeled by the author for Botany in a Day and subject to copyright. Additional illustrations
were drawn by the author and also subject to copyright.
I am extremely grateful for the work of all the talented artists who did these illustrations in the 1700s, 1800s, and
early 1900s, and I am glad to resurrect their work in this book. I am also grateful for the monumental work of the
people who
scanned old books and journals and made these works available to the public. If you are looking for quality artwork for your
projects, please go to the above sources and download the original, high-quality scans.
. “Hot Stuff: Chili pepper can ease lingering pain after surgery.” Bozeman Daily Chronicle. May 21, 1996. Pg. 13.
° . Text-Book of Western Botany. Ivison, Blakeman & Co.: New York. 1885.
Amrion, Inc. “Grape Seed Extract.” Promotional Pamphlet. 1995.
* Andrews, E. FE. A Practical Course in Botany. American Book Company. New York. 1911.
Angier, Bradford. Survival with Style. Stackpole Books: Harrisburg, PA. 1972.
Angier, Bradford. Living off the Country. Stackpole Books: Harrisburg, PA. 1956, 1971.
Angier, Bradford. Field Guide to Medicinal Wild Plants. Stackpole Books: Harrisburg, PA. 1978.
Asch, John. The Story of Plants. G. P. Putnam’s Sons: USA 1948.
* Bailey, L. H. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. Macmillan Co: New York. Vol. I, 1900, 1914. Vol. 2, 1900, 1914.
Bastin, Harold. Plants Without Flowers. Philosophical Library, Inc.: New York. 1955.
Baumgardt, John Philip. How to Identify Flowering Plant Families. Timber Press: Portland, OR. 1982, 1994.
Bell, Peter R. Green Plants: Their Origin and Diversity. Dioscorides Press: Portland, OR. 1992.
Benson, Lyman. Plant Classification, 2nd Edition. D.C. Heath & Co.: Lexington, MA. 1957, 1979.
Bigfoot, Peter. Useful Wild Western Plants. Reevis Mountain School: Roosevelt, AZ.
* Booth, W. E. & J. C. Wright. Flora of Montana—Part II. Montana State University: Bozeman, MT. 1959, 1962, 1966.
¢ Britton, Nathaniel Lord, Ph.D. & Hon. Addison Brown. An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British Pos-
sessions. Charles Scribner’s Sons: New York. Volume I, 1896. Volume II, 1897. Volume III, 1898.
Brown, Annora. Old Man’s Garden. J. M. Dent & Sons (Canada) Limited: Toronto. 1954.
Brown, Tom Jr. Tom Brown's Guide to Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants. Berkeley Books. New York. 1985.
Campbell, Douglas H. The Evolution of the Land Plants. Stanford University Press: Stanford University, CA. 1940.
Cobb, B., Lowe, C., & Farnsworth, E. Ferns: Of Northeastern and Central North America,
2nd Edition. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2005.
Corner, E. J. H. The Life of Plants. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. 1964.
Cook, Frank. Personal correspondence. November 2003.
Coon, Nelson. Using Plants for Healing. Hearthside Press: New York. 1963.
* Coulter, John M., A.M. Ph.D. Plant Relations. D. Appleton & Co. New York. 1899.
* Coulter, John M., A.M. Ph.D. A Text-Book of Botany. D. Appleton & Co: New York. 1910.
* Coulter, John M., A.M. Ph.D., Charles R. Barnes Ph.D., Henry C. Cowles Ph.D. A Textbook of Botany, Volume II: Ecology. American
Book Company. New York. 1911.
Couplan, Francois Ph.D. The Encyclopedia of Edible Plant of North America. Keats Publishing: New Canaan, CT. 1998.
Craighead, John J., Frank C. Craighead, & RayJ.Davis. A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain Wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin Co: Boston. 1963.
Crellin, John K. and Jane Philpott. Herbal Medicine Past and Present: A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants. Duke University Press: Durham
and London. 1989.
Culpeper, Nicholas. Culpeper’s Complete Herbal. W. Foulsham & Co., Ltd.: London.
Cummings, Elsie, J. & Wavie J. Charlton. Survival: Pioneer, Indian and Wilderness Lore. Self-published. Missoula, Montana. 1971, 1972.
e Dana, Mrs. William Starr. How to Know the Wild Flowers. Charles Scribner’s Sons. New York. 1909.
* Dayton, William A. Important Western Browse Plants. USDA Handbook No. 101. July 1931.
Densmore, Frances. How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine, & Crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.: New York. 1974.
Dorn, Robert L. Vascular Plants of Montana. Mountain West Publishing: Cheyenne, WY. 1984.
Duke, James A. Handbook of Edible Weeds. CRC Press: Boca Raton. 1992.
Duncan, Ursula K., M.A. A Guide to the Study of Lichens. Scholar’s Library: Gracie Station, NY. 1959.
Elpel, Thomas J. Participating in Nature: Wilderness Survival and Primitive Living Skills, 6th Edition. HOPS Press: Pony, MT. 2009.
Emboden, William A. Jr. Narcotic Plants. The Macmillan Company: New York. 1972.
Fern, Ken. Plants for a Future Database. http://www.axis-net.com/pfaf/plants.html. Jan.-Feb. 1997.
223
Botany in a Day
Fukuoka, Masanobu. The Natural Way of Farming. Japan Publications, Inc.: New York. 1985 and 1986.
Geller, Cascade Anderson. “Pharmacognosy Basics: Predominate Constituent Groups in Common Plant Families’, 1995 Gaia Symposium Proceed-
ings—Naturopathic Herbal Wisdom. Gaia Herbal Research Institute: Harvard, MA. 1995.
Gibbons, Euell. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. David McKay Company, Inc.: New York. 1962-1973.
Gillaspy, James, Ph.D. “Purslane: A Personal Perspective.” Bulletin of Primitive Technology. Vol. 1. No. 7. Spring 1994, Pgs. 54-55.
Gilmore, Melvin R. Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln & London. 1991.
Glimn-Lacy, Janice and Peter B. Kaufman. Botany Illustrated: Introduction to Plants, Major Groups, Flowering Plant Families. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company: New York. 1984.
Green, James. The Herbal Medicine-Maker’s Handbook. Simplers Botanical Co.: Forestville, CA. 1990.
Hale, Mason E. How to Know the Lichens. Wm. C. Brown Co. Publishers: Dubuque, IA. 1969, 1979.
Hall, Alan. The Wild Food Trailguide. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston: New York. 1973, 1976.
Hart, Jeff. Montana: Native Plants and Early Peoples. Montana Historical Society Press: Helena, MT. 1976, 1992.
Harrington, H. D. Edible Native Plants of the Rocky Mountains. University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, NM. 1967.
* Hayes, Doris W. and George A. Garrison. Key to Important Woody Plants of Eastern Oregon and Washington. Agriculture Handbook No.
148. USDA. December 1960.
Healthy Cell News. “Flaxseed As Food and Medicine.” Healthy Cell News. Spring/Summer 1997. Page 1.
Healthy Cell News. “Oi/-Protein Combination.” Healthy Cell News. Spring/Summer 1997. Page 2.
Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A., & Seberg, O. Flowering Plant Families of the World (Revised). Firefly Books: Buffalo, NY:
Richmond Hill, Ont.: . 2007.
Hobbs, Christopher. Foundations of Health. Botanica Press: Capitola, CA. 1992.
Holmes, Sandra. Outline of Plant Classification. Longman Group Ltd.: New York. 1983.
Hutchins, Alma R. Indian Herbology of North America. Shambala Press: Boston. 1973.
Jaeger, Ellsworth. Wildwood Wisdom.
Judd, W. S., Campbell, C. S., Kellog, E. A., Stevens, P. FE, & Donahue, M. J. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach (Third Edition).
Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. 2008.
Kadans, Joseph M., N.D. Ph.D. Modern Encyclopedia of Herbs. Parker Publishing Company, Inc.: West Nyack, NY. 1970.
Kallas, John. Edible Wild Plants: From Dirt to Plate. Gibbs Smith. Layton, UT. 2010
Kallas, John. “Amaranth—Staple Food Source for Modern Foragers.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 3, No. 2. July
Keble) (< 1, 1998.
Wild Plants Kallas, John. “Bull Thistle.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 2, No. 4. November 15, 1997.
Kallas, John. “Edible Blue Camas—Preparation Old & New.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 3, No. 2. July 1, 1998.
Kallas, John. “Groundnut—Pearls on a String.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 5, No. 2. June 15, 2000.
Kallas, John. “Jnfant—Nitrate Caution.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 6, No. 1. April 1, 2001.
Kallas, John. “Oregon Grape: Not for the Faint of Taste.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 2, No. 2. June 15, 1997.
Kallas, John. “Oxalates Schmokulates.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 6, No. 3. August 28, 2001.
Kallas, John. “Tawny Day Lily—Unpredictably Tainted Fare.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 5, No. 2. June15, 2000.
Kallas, John. “Wapato, Indian Potato.” The Wild Food Adventurer. Volume 1, No 4. Dec. 10, 1996.
Kallas, John. “Wild Spinach: Delicious, Nutritious and Abundant” The Wild Food Adventurer. Vol. 1, No 2. June 30, 1996.
Kinucan, Edith S. and Penny R. Brons. Wild Wildflowers of the West. Kinucan & Brons: Ketchum, ID. 1979.
Kirk, Donald R. Wild Edible Plants of the Western United States. Naturegraph Publishers: Heataiaee CA. 1970.
* Kirtikar, K. R. and B. D. Basu. Indian Medicinal Plants. India. 1918.
Klein, Robyn. “The Mountain Herbalist” Montana Pioneer. Livingston, Montana. Articles 1992-1994.
Klein, Robyn. “The Simple Wort... and the Rest ofthe Story.” Community Food News: Bozeman, MT. Summer 2000. Page 18.
Kloss, Jethro. Back to Eden. Woodbridge Press Publishing Co.: Santa Barbara, CA. 1981-1983. Kloss 1939.
Krakauer, Jon. Into the Wild. Anchor Books (Doubleday): New York. 1996.
Kramer, Miriam Darnall and John Goude. Dining on the Wilds. Videos. JEG Development. Yucaipa, CA.
Lincoff, Gary. The Joy of Foraging. Quarry Books: Beverly, MA. 2012.
Lust, John, N.D., D.B.M. The Herb Book. Bantam Books: New York. 1974, 1983.
Mabey, Richard. Plantcraft: A guide to the everyday use of wild plants. Universe Books: New York. 1977.
* Mathews, FE Schuyler. Familiar Trees and Their Leaves. D. Appleton & Co.: New York. 1898.
* Mathews, FE. Schuyler. The Book of Wildflowers for Young People. Knickerbocker Press. G.P. Putnam’s Sons. New York. 1923.
McMenamin, Mark A. and Dianna L. S. Hypersea: Life on Land. Columbia University Press: New York. 1994.
Merwood, Anne. “Plants ofthe Apes.” Wildlife Conservation. March-April 1991. Pgs.54-59.
Moerman, Dan. American Indian Ethnobotany Database. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb. Jan-Feb. 1997.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Mountain West. Museum of New Mexico Press: Sante Fe, NM. 1979.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Desert and Canyon West. Museum of New Mexico Press: Santa Fe, NM. 1989.
Moore, Michael. Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West. Red Crane Books: Sante Fe, NM. 1993.
Morton, Julia F. “Caztails (Typha spp.) — Weed Problem or Potential Crop.” Economic Botany. Vol. 29. January -March, 1975. Pages 7-29.
Murphey, Edith Van Allen. Indian Uses of Native Plants. Mendocino County Historical Society: Ukiah, CA. 1999, 1987.
Nyerges, Christopher. “Plants Which Stun Fish.” Wilderness Way. Vol. 3, Issue 4. 1997. Pgs. 49-54.
Olsen, Larry Dean. Outdoor Survival Skills. Brigham Young University: Provo, UT. 1967, 1972.
Orr, Robert T. and Margaret C. Wildflowers of Western America. Galahad Books: New York. 1974, 1981.
* Pammel, L. H., Ph.D. A Manual of Poisonous Plants. The Torch Press: Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 1911.
* Parsons, Mary Elizabeth. Illustrated by Margaret Warriner Buck. The Wildflowers of California. Philopolis Press. San Francisco. 1921.
224
Bibliography
Pendell, Dale. Pharmako/poeia: Plant Powers, Poisons, and Herbcraft. Mercury House: San Francisco. 1995.
Phillips, Wayne. “Poisonous and Medicinal Plants.” (class hand-out.) HOPS Primitive Fair. 1995. The ;
Platt, Rutherford. Our Flowering World. Dodd, Mead & Co.: New York. 1947. Forager’s
Platt, Rutherford. This Green World. Dodd, Mead & Co.: New York. 1942, 1988.
Raven, PH., Evert, R.F, & Eichorn, S.E. Biologyof Plants (Seventh Edition). W.H. Freeman: New York. 2004.
Rothschild, Michael. Bionomics. John Macrae / Henry Holt and Company: New York, NY. 1990.
Rogers, Robert D., AHG. Sundew Moonwort: Medicinal Plants of the Prairies. Volumes I, II, III. Jan 1997.
Schauenberg, Paul. Guide to Medicinal Plants. Keats Publishing, Inc.: New Canaan, CT. 1990.
Sheff, Elaine. “Nature's First Aid Kit.” Community Food News. Bozeman, MT. Sept/October 1997. Pg. 4.
Smith, James Payne, Jr. Vascular Plant Families. Mad River Press, Inc.: Eureka, CA. 1977.
Spears, P. A ‘Tour of the Flowering Plants. Missouri Botanical Garden Press: St. Louis, MO. 2006.
Spellenberg, Richard. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers. Alfred A. Knopf: New
York. 1979.
Storl, Wolf D. Healing Lyme Disease Naturally. North Atlantic Books: Berkeley, CA. 2010.
Sturtevant, Dr. E. Lewis. Sturtevant’s Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications: New York. 1972.
Sweet, Muriel. Common Edible and Useful Plants of the West. Naturegraph Publishers: Happy Camp, CA. 1976.
Thoreau, Henry David. Faith in a Seed. Island Press / Shearwater Books: Washington, D. C. & Covelo, CA. 1993.
TURE’S
ae eee = Thayer, Sam. Nature’s Garden. Forager’s Harvest: Ogema, WI. 2010.
Thayer, Sam. “Nettles: The Good, The Better, and the Ouch.” The Forager. Vol. 2, No. 1. Spring 2002. Pages 9-11.
Thayer, Sam. The Forager’s Harvest. Forager’s Harvest: Ogema, WI. 2006.
Tilford, Gregory L. The EcoHerbalist’s Fieldbook. Mountain Weed Publishing: Conner, Montana. 1993.
Tilford, Gregory L. Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Publishing Co.: Missoula, MT. 1997.
Tompkins, Peter & Christopher Bird. The Secret Life of Plants. Harper & Row, Publishers: New York. 1973.
Tull, Delena. Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest: A Practical Guide. University of Texas Press:
Austin, Texas. 1999.
Turner, Nancy J. Plant Technology of First Peoples in British Columbia. UBC Press: Vancouver. 1998, 2000.
Tyler, Varro E., Ph.D. The Honest Herbal. 3rd Ed. Pharmaceutical Products Press (Haworth Press): NY. 1993.
Uphof, J. C. TH. Dictionary of Economic Plants. H. R. Engelmann: New York. 1959.
Treben, Maria. Maria Treben Herbs. http://mariatrebenherbs.com. Accessed April 9, 2013.
Venning, Frank. Wildflowers of North America. Golden Press, Western Publishing Co.: New York. 1984.
Verrill, A. Hyatt. Wonder Plants and Plant Wonders. D. Appleton-Century Company: New York. 1939.
Vitt, Dale H., Janet E. Marsh, and Robin B. Bovey. Mosses, Lichens, & Ferns of Northwest North America. Lone Pine Publishing: Edmonton,
Alberta. 1988.
Vogel, Virgil J. American Indian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, OK. 1970.
Weiner, Michael. Earth Medicine-Earth Food. Fawcett Columbine: New York. 1972, 1980.
Willard, Terry, Ph.D. Edible and Medicinal Plants of the Rocky Mountains and Neighboring Territories. Wild Rose College of Natural Heal-
ing, Ltd.: Calgary, Alberta. 1992.
Williams, Kim. Eating Wild Plants. Mountain Press Publishing Co.: Missoula, MT. 1977.
Williams, Marc. Personal correspondence. Winter 2012 - 2013. http://www.botanyeveryday.com.
Wilson, Jacque. “Highs and lows of using marijuana.” CNN News. http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/07/health/marijuana-research-roundup/
index.html. Accessed November 7, 2012.
Wohlberg, Beth. “Barberry bush beats bacteria.” High Country News. July 31, 2000. Pg. 8.
Yeo, R. R. “Life History of Common Cattail.” WEEDS. Vol 12, No. 4. October 1964.
Zimmer, Carl. “Hypersea Invasion.” Discover. October 1995. Pgs. 76-87.
Guide to
Zomlefer, Wendy B. FloweringPlant Families. University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, NC. 1994.
Participating in Nature
Wilderness Survival and Primitive Living Skills
by Thomas J. Elpel
Get in touch with your wild side! Learn about nature by participating in it. Instead of
merely camping in the wilderness or passing through it, become part of the process. Learn |,
about nature by using it to meet your needs for shelter, fire, water, and food.
Discover the thrill of staying warm and comfortable without even a blanket! Experience
the magic of starting a fire by friction. Butcher your own deer and braintan its hide to make
warm clothing. Learn about edible plants, plus processing techniques and “primitive gour-
\ met” skills like making wild strawberry ashcake pies or stir-fry cooking without a pan.
Use this book for in depth coverage of tire sandals, bedroll packs and pack frames, felting §
with wool, quick bows and bone arrowheads, sinews, hide glue, trapping, fishing by hand,
water purification, birch bark canisters, willow baskets, primitive pottery, wooden containers, cordage, twig deer, stalking
skills, simple stone knives, flint & steel, bowdrill and handdrill fire-starting. Available from www.hopspress.com.
225
Index of Plants by Genus
A Anoda 105 Berberis 58 Cardaria 110 Clematis 56

Antennaria 168 Berchemia 96 Cardionema 114 Cleome 108
Abies 46 Anthemis 169 Berteroa 110 Carduus 166 Cleomella 108
Abronia 122 Anthriscus 179 Berula 180 Carex 206 Clerodendrum 160
Abutilon 105 Anthurium 184 Besseya 152 Carlowrightia 156 Clintonia 192
Acacia 80 Antiaris 88 Beta 118 Carnegiea 123 Cocos 189
Acalypha 77 Anticlea 22, 194 Betula 101 Carpenteria 125 Codiaeum 77
Acanthus 156 Antirrhinum 152 Bidens 173 Carpinus 101 Coffea 138
Acer 103 Aphananthe 87 Biovularia 153 Carum 179, 180 Colchicum 195
Achillea 169 Apios 85 Bloomeria 197 Carya 99 Coleus 157
Achlys 58 Apium 179 Blutaparon 117 Cassia 81, 216 Collinsia 152
Achnatherum 208 Aplectrum 202 Blyxa 186 Cassiope 132 Collomia 128
Achyranthes 117 Apocynum 140 Boehmeria 90 Castanea 100 Colubrina 96
Achyronychia 114 Aquilegia 55, 56 Boerhavia 122 Castilleja 154 Comandra 112
Aconitum 56 Arabidopsis 110 Boisduvalia 70 Catharanthus 140 Comarostaphylis 134
Acorus 182 Arabis 110 Borago 142 Caulophyllum 58 Commelina 190
Acourtia 167 Arachniodes 45 Boschniakia 154 Ceanothus 96, 216 Condalia 96
Acrostichum 44 Aralia 178 Botrychium 40 Cecropia 88 Conium 179, 180
Actaea 55, 56 Arbutus 134 Bouchea 160 Celosia 117 Conopholis 154
Adenocaulon 167 Arceuthobium 112 Bouchetia 146 Celtis 87, 89 Conringia 110
Adenophyllum 170 Arctium 166 Bougainvillea 122 Centaurea 166 Convallaria 198, 216
Adiantum 44 Arctostaphylos 134 Boykinia 66 Centaurium 139 Convolvulus 145
Adlumia 61 Arenaria 114 Brasenia 50 Cephalanthus 138 Coptis 56, 219
Adonis 56, 216 Argemone 60 Brassica 109, 110 Cerastium 114 Corallorhiza 202
Adoxa 176 Argentina 92 Brevoortia 197 Ceratiola 133 Cordylanthus 154
Aeonium 64 Argyrochosma 44 Brickellia 167 Ceratophyllum 54 Corema 133
Aesculus 102, 216 Arisaema 184 Brodiaea 197 Ceratopteris 44 Coreopsis 173
Agalinis 154 Aristolochia 51 Bromus 208 Cercidium 81 Coriandrum 179 -
Agastache 158 Armoracia 109 Brosimum 88 Cercis 81 Corispermum 119
Agave 199 Arnica 171 Broussonetia 88 Cercocarpus 93 Cornus 124
Agoseris 164 Aronia 95 Browallia 146 Cereus ,123 Coronilla 82
Agrimonia 92 Artemisia 163, 169, 221 Bryonia 98 Cevallia 126 | Corydalis 61
Agropyron 208 Artocarpus 88 Buckleya 112 Chaenactis 172 Corylus 101
Agrostemma 114 Arum 184 Buddleja 150 Chaetadelpha 164 Coryphantha 123
Agrostis 208 Aruncus 93 Bupleurum 180 Chamaebatia 93 Cosmos 173
Alcea 105 Asarum 51 Butomus 182 Chamaebatiaria 93 Cotinus 104
Alchemilla 92 Asclepias 141 Chamaecrista 81 Cotoneaster 95
Aldrovanda 116 Ascyrum 74 C Chamaecyparis 48 Cotyledon 64
Alisma 183 Asparagus 197 Chamaedaphne 134 Cudrania 88
Allenrolfea 119 Cabomba 50
Asperugo 142 Chamaerhodes 92 Coussapoa 88
Allionia 122 Caesalpinia 81
Aspidotis 44 Chamaesaracha 148 Cowania 93
Allium 196, 214 Calandrinia 120
Asplenium 45 Chamerion 70 Crassula 64
Allotropa 137 Calibrachoa 146
Aster 174 Chaptalia 167 Crataegus 95
Alnus 101 Calla 184
Astilbe 66 Cheilanthes 44 Crepis 164
Alocasia 184 Calliandra 80
Astragalus 79, 83 Chelidonium 60 Cressa 145
Aloe 200, 216 Callicarpa 160
Astrolepis:
44 Chelone 152 Crinum 196
Alophia 201 Astronium 104
Callirhoe 105
Chenopodium 118 Crocus 201
Alternanthera 117 Callisia 190
Athyrium 45 Chimaphila 136 Crookea 74
Alyssum 110 Callitriche 152
Atrichoseris 164 Chionanthus 149 Crotalaria 82
Amaranthus 117 Calluna 133
Atriplex 118 Chlorogalum 199 Croton 77
Ambrosia 172 Calocedrus 48
Atropa 146 Chlorophora 88 Cryptantha 142
Amelanchier 95 Calochortus 192
Avena 207 Chorispora 110 Cryptogramma 44
Amerorchis 202 Calopogon 202
Averrhoa 73 Chrysanthemum 169 Ctenitis 45
Amianthium 22, 194 Caltha 56
Axyris 118 Chrysolepis 100 Cucumis 98
Ammannia 69 Calycoseris 164
Ayenia 107 Chrysopsis 174 Cucurbita 98
Amorpha 83 Calydorea 201
Azolla 42 Chrysosplenium 66 Cuminum 179
Ampelopsis 67 Calylophus 70
Chrysothamnus 174 Cuphea 69
Amphicarpaea 85 B Calypso 202
Cicer 85 Cupressus 48
Amsinckia 142 Calystegia 145
Cichorium 164 Cuscuta 145, 216
Amsonia 140 Baccharis 174 Camassia 192, 199, 214
Cicuta 179, 180 Cyclamen 130, 216
Anacardium 104 Bacopa 152 Camelina 110
Cimicifuga 56 Cycloloma 119
Anagallis 130 Baldellia 183 Camissonia 70
Cinnamomum 53 Cydonia 95
Anaphalis 168 Balsamorhiza 171 Campanula 161
Circaea 70 Cymbopogon 209
Anchusa 142 Baptisia 82 Campyloneurum 43
Cirsium 166 Cymopterus 180
Andromeda 134 Barbarea 110 Cannabis 89
Cissus 67 Cynanchum 141
Androsace 130 Bartonia 139 Capraria 152
Cistanthe 120 Cynoglossum 142
Aneilema 190 Bassia 119 Capsella 110
Citharexylum 160 Cyperus 206
Anemone 56 Beckmannia 208 Capsicum 146
Citrullus 98 Cypripedium 202
Anethum 179 Bejaria 133 Caragana 83
Clarkia 70 Cyrtomium 45
Angelica 180 Belamcanda 201 Carapichea 219
Claviceps 207 Cystopteris 45
Anisocoma 164 Bellis 174 Cardamine 110
Claytonia 120 Cytisus 82
226
D Ephedra 49 Genlisea 153 Heuchera 66 Keckiella 152

Epifagus 154 Gentiana 139 Hexastylis 51 Kelseya 92
Dalea 83 Epigaea 133 Gentianella 139 Hibiscus 106 Knautia 175
Damasonium 183 Epilobium 70 Krascheninnikovia 118
Geocarpon 114 Hieracium 164
Darlingtonia 129 Epipactis 202 Geocaulon 112 'Hierochloe 209 Krugiodendron 96
Darmera 66 Equisetum 41 Geranium 68 Hippophae 97
Dasylirion 198 Eriastrum 128 Hippuris 152 Ib
Gerbera 167
Datura 146, 148, 219 Erica 133 Geum 92 Holodiscus 93
Daucus 179, 180 Lactuca 164
Erigeron 174 Gilia 128 Holosteum 114
Decodon 69 Lagerstroemia 69
Eriobotrya 95 Gillenia 93 Hordeum 207, 209
Decumaria 125 Lamium 158
Eriodictyon 144 Glabraria 53 Horkelia 92
Delphinium 55, 56 Landoltia 184
Eriogonum 113 Gladiolus 201 Horsfordia 106
Dendrocnide 90 Langloisia 128
Eriophorum 206 Glauctum 60 Hottonia 130
Dennstaedtia 43 Lantana 160
Eriophyllum 173 Glaux 130 Houstonia 138
Deparia 45 Laportea 90
Eritrichium 142 Glechoma 158 Howellia 161
Deschampsia 209 Lapsana 164
Erodium 68 Gleditsia 81 Hoya 141
Descurainia 110 Larix 46
Eruca 110 Glyceria 209 Hulsea 173
Desmanthus 80 Larrea 72
Erysimum 110 Glycine 85 Humulus 89
Desmodium 82 Lathyrus 85
Erythrina 85 Glycyrrhiza 83 Hunzikeria 148
Deutzia 125 Laurentia 161
Erythronium 192 Glyptopleura 164 Huperzia 38
Diamorpha 64 Laurus 53
Erythroxylum 219 Gnaphalium 168 Hybanthus 75
Dianthus 114 Lavandula 157
Eschscholzia 60 Gomphrena 117 Hydrangea 125
Dicentra 61 Lavatera 106
Eucalyptus 221 Gonolobus 141 Hydrastis 56, 219
Dichondra 145 Lawsonia 69
Eucnide 126 Goodyera 202 - Hydrilla 186
Dicliptera 156 Ledum 133
Eucrypta 144 Gossypianthus 117 Hydrocera 127
Dieffenbachia 184 Letophyllum 133
Eupatorium 167 Gossypium 105 Hydrocharis 186
Digitalis 152, 216 Lemmonia 144
Euphorbia 77 Gouania 96 Hydrophyllum 144
Digitaria 209 Lemna 184
Euphrasia 154 Graptopetalum 64 Hygrophila 156
Dionaea 116 Lenophyllum 64
Eustoma 139 Gratiola 152, 216 Hylotelephium 64
Diphasiastrum 38 Lens 85
Evolvulus 145 Grayia 119 Hymenopappus 173
Diphylleia 58 Leonurus 158
Grindelia 174 Hymenoxys 173
Diplazium 45 E Lepidium 110
Grossularia 65 Hyoscyamus 146, 148
Dipsacus 175 Leptarrhena 66
Guaiacum 72 Hyosyamus 219
Disporum 195 Fagonia 72 Leptopteris 42 —
Guilleminea 117 Hypericum 74, 216
Dodecatheon 130 Fagopyrum 113 Leptosiphon 128
Gutierrezia 174 Hypolepis 43
Dorstenia 88 Fagus 100 Lesquerella 110
Gymnocarpium 45 Hyssopus 158, 221
Douglasia 130 Fallugia 92 Leucaena 80
Gymnocladus 81
Downingia 161 Fatoua 88 I Leucanthemum 169
Gypsophila 114
Fendlera 125 Leucocrinum 199
Draba 110
Dracocephalum 158 Fendlerella 125 H Iliamna 106 Leucojum 196
Ferocactus 123 Impatiens 127 Lewisia 120
Draperia. 144
Drosera 116 Festuca 209 Habenaria 202 Inula 168 Liatris 167
Drosophyllum 116 Filago 168 Hackelia 142 Ipomoea 145 Libocedrus 48

Foeniculum 179, 221 Halenia 139 Ipomopsis 128 Ligusticum 180
Dryas 93
Forestiera 149 Halogeton 119 Tresine 117 Ligustrum 149
Drymaria 114
Forsythia 149 Halophila 186 Tris 201 Lilaea 187
Dryopteris 45
Fothergilla 62 Hamamelis 62 Tsatis 110 Lilium 192
Dudleya 64
Duranta 160 Fragaria 92 Haplophyton 140 Tsoetes 39 Limnobium 186
Franseria 172 Hedeoma 157, 158 Isomeris 108 Limnophila 152
Dyschoriste 156
Frasera 139 Hedera 178 Itea 125 Limosella 150
18 Fraxinus 149 Hedysarum 79, 82 lva 172 Linanthus 128
Freesia 201 Heimia 69 Ixia 201 Linaria 152
Echeveria 64 Fremontodendron 107 Helenium 173 Lindera 53
Echinacea 172, 212 Fritillaria 192 Heliamphora 129 J Linnaea 176
Echinocereus 123 Froelichia 117 Helianthus 163, 172, 214 Linum 78
Jacquemontia 145
Echinochloa 207, 209 Fuchsia 70 Heliotropium 142 Liparis 202
Jaltomata 148
Echinocystis 98 Fumaria 61 Helleborus 216 Liparophyllum 162
Jamesia 125
Echinodorus 183 Hemerocallis 200
Jasione 161
Lippia 160
Egeria 186 G Hemiptelea 87 Liquidambar 62
Jasminum 149, 221
Eichhornia 191 Hemitomes 137 Liriodendron 52
Gaillardia 173 Jeffersonia 58
Elaeagnus 97 Hepatica 56 Lithocarpus 100
Galactia 85 Juglans 99 |
Eleocharis 206 Heracleum 180 Lithophragma 66
Galanthus 196 Juncus 205
Elephantopus 167 Herissantia 106 Lithospermum 142
Galeopsis 158 Juniperus 48
Eleusine 207 Hesperaloe 199 Littorella 150
Galinsoga 172 Jussiaea 70
Elliottia 133 Hesperis 110 Lloydia 192
Galium 138 Justicia 156
Ellisia 144 Hesperocallis 199 Lobelia 161
Gambelia 152 Lobularia 110
Elodea 186 Hesperochiron 144 K
Gaultheria 134 Loiseleuria 133
Elymus 208, 209 Hesperocnide 90
Gaura 70 Hesperolinon 78 Kalanchoe 64 Lolium 207
Elytrigia 208
Emmenanthe 144
Gaylussacia 134 Hesperoyucca 199 Kallstroemia 72 Lomariopsis 45
Gayophytum 70 Heteranthera 191 Kalmia 133 Lomatium 180
Empetrum 133
Genista 82 Heterocodon 161 ; Kalmiopsis 133 Lomatogonium 139
Enemion 56
Dede)
Lonicera 176 Minuartia 114 Olsynium 201 Phoenix 189 Purshia 93

Lopezia 70 Mirabilis 122 Onobrychis 82 Pholistoma 144 Pyracantha 95
Lophophora 123, 219 Misanteca 53 Onoclea 45 Phoradendron 112 Pyrola 136
Lophotocarpus 183 Mitchella 138 Onopordum 166 Photinia 95 Pyrularia 112
Lotus 84 Mitella 66 Ophioglossum 40 Phragmites 209 Pyrus 95
Ludwigia 70 Modiola 106 Oplopanax 178 Phryma 150
Luetkea 92 Mohavea 152 Opuntia 123 Phyla 160 Q
Luffa 98 Moldavica 158 Origanum 157 Phyllodoce 133 Quercus 100
Lupinus 82 Monarda 158 Ornithostaphylos 134 Physalis 146, 148 Quincula 148
Luzula 205 Monardella 157, 158 Orobanche 154 Physaria 110
Lychnis 114, 216 Moneses 136 Orogenia 180 Physocarpus 93 R
Lycium 148 Monnina 86 Orontium 184 Picea 46
Lycopodiella 38 Monochoria 191 Orthilia 136 Pieris 134 Rafinesquia 164
Lycopodium 38 Monolepis 119 Orthocarpus 154 Pilea 90 Ranunculus 17, 56
Lycopus 158 Monotropa 137 Oryctes 148 Pimpinella 179 Raphanus 109
Lycoris 196 Monotropsis 137 Oryza 207 Pinguicula 153 - Ratibida 172
Lygedesmia 164 Monsonia 68 Oryzopsis 208, 209 Pinus 46 Reynosia 96
Lyonia 134 Montia 120 Osmanthus 149 Pistacia 104 Rhamnus 96, 216
Lyonothamnus 93 Moraea 201 Osmaronia 94 Pistia 184 Rhapidophyllum 189
Lysichiton 184 Morus 88 Osmorhiza 180 Pisum 85 Rheum 113, 216
Iysiloma 80 Muilla 197 Osmunda 42 Pityopus 137 Rhinanthus 154
Lysimachia 130 Murdannia 190 Osmundastrum 42 Pityrogramma 44 Rhodiola 64
Lythrum 69 Musanga 88 Ostrya 101 Planera 87 Rhododendron 133
Myosotis 142 Ottelia 186 °° Plantago 15, 150 Rhus 104
M Myosurus 56 Oxalis 73 Platycarya 99 Rhynchosia 85
Myriophyllum 63 Oxydendrum 134 Plectritis 175 Ribes 65
Maclura 88
Oxyria 113 Pleopeltis 43 Ricinus 77
Macrosiphonia 140 N Oxystylis 108 Pleuricospora 137 Robinia 83 i
Madia 172
Oxytropis 83 Poa 209 Romanzoffia 144
Magnolia 52 Najas 186
Podophyllum 58 Romulea 201
Mahonia 58 Nama 144 P Pogonia 202 Rorippa 110
Maianthemum 198 Nandina 58
Polanisia 108 Rosa 3, 92
Maidenia 186 Napaea 106 Paeonia 63
Polemonium 128 Rosmarinus 157
Malacothrix 164 Narcissus 196 Panax 178
Pollia 190 Rotala 69
Malosma 104 Nasturtium 109, 110 Panicum 207, 209
Polygala 86 Rubus 92
Malus 95 Navarretia 128 Papaver 60
Polygonatum 198 Rudbeckia 172
Malva 106 Nectandra 53 Parietaria 90
Polygonum 113 Ruellia 156
Malvastrum 106 Nectouxia 148 Parkinsonia 81
Polypodium 43 Rumex 113
Mandevilla 140 Nelumbo 50 Parnassia 66
Polypompholyx 153
Mandragora 146 Nemastylis 201 Paronychia 114 S
Polystichum 45
Manfreda 199 Nemophila 144 Parthenocissus 67
Pontederia 191
Mangifera 104 Neomarica 201 Pastinaca 180 Sabal 189
Populus 76
Manihot 77 Neottia 202 Pecluma 43 Sabbatia 139
Porophyllum 170
Marah 98 Nepeta 158 Pectis 170 Saccharum 207
Porterella 161
Margaranthus 148 Nephrolepis 45 Pedicularis 154 Sageretia 96
Portulaca 120
Marrubium 157, 158 Nephrophyllidium Pediocactus 123 Sagina 114
Potamogeton 188
Matelea 141 139, 162 Peganum 72 Sagittaria 17, 183
Potentilla 92
Matricaria 169 Nerium 140 Pelargonium 68 Saintpaulia 75
Prenanthella 164
Matteuccia 45 Nestronia 112 Pellaea 44 Salicornia 119
Prenanthes 164
Medeola 192 Neurodium 43 Peltandra 184 Salix 76
Primula 130
Medicago 84 Nicandra 148 Pennisetum 207 Salsola 119
Priva 160
Melampyrum 154 Nicolletia 170 Penstemon 152 Salvia 157, 158
Prosartes 192
Melanthium 194 Nicotiana 148 Perideridia 180 , Salvinia 42
Proserpinaca 63
Melilotus 84, 216 Nolina 198 Persea 53 Sambucus 176
Prosopis 80
Melochia 107 Nothochelone 152 Petalonyx 126 Samolus 130
Prunella 158
Melothria 98 ae ies44 Petalostemon 83 Sanguinaria 60
Prunus 94
Menodora 149 Nothoscordum 196 Petasites 170 Sanguisorba 92
Pseudolycopodiella 38
Mentha 157, 158, Nuphar 50 Petrophyton 93 Sanicula 180
Pseudophoenix 189
LAB, 224 Nuttallanthus 152 Petroselinum 179 Sapindus 102
Pseudostellaria 114
Mentzelia 126 Nymphaea 50, 216 Petunia 146, 148 Saponaria 114, 216
Pseudotsuga 46
Menyanthes 162 Nymphoides 139, 162 Phacelia 144 Sarcobatus 118, 119
Psoralea 83
Menziesia 133 Nyssa 124 Phalaris 209 Sarcodes 137
Pteridium 43
Merremia 145 Phanerophlebia 45 Sarcostemma 141
O Pteris 44
Mertensia 142 Phaseolus 85 Sarracenia 129
Pterocarya 99
Metopium 104 Phemeranthus 120 Sassafras 53
Obolaria 139 Pteroceltis 87
Michelia 52 Philadelphus 125 Satureja 157
Ocimum 157 Pterospora 137
Microgramma 43 Philodendron 184 Saxifraga 66
Ocotea 53 Puccinellia 209
Microseris 164 Phlebodium 43 Scabiosa 175
Odontosoria 43 Pueraria 85
Microsteris 128 Phlegmariurus 38 Schefflera 178
Oemleria 94 Pulsatilla 56
Mimosa 80 Phleum 209 Scheuchzeria 187
Ocenothera 70 Punica 69
Mimulus 150 Phlox 128 Schinus 104
Olea 149
228
Schoenolirion 199 T Umbellularia 53
Scirpus 206
Urera 90
Scleranthus 114 Tagetes 170
Urtica 90
Sclerolinon 78 Talinopsis 120
Utricularia 153
Scoliopus 192 Talinum 120
Uvularia 195
Scoparia 152 Tamarindus 81
Scrophularia 150 Tanacetum 169, 221 Vv
Scutellaria 158 Taraxacum 164
Sebastiana 77 Taxodium 48 Vaccaria 114
Secale 207 Taxus 49 Vaccinium 2, 134
Sechium 98 Tectaria 45 Valeriana 175
Sedum 64 Telesonix 66 Valerianella 175
Selaginella 39 Tetramerium 156 Vallisneria 186
Sempervivum 64 Teucrium 157 Vancouveria 58
Senecio 170 Thalassia 186 Vanilla 202
Senna 81 Thalictrum 56 Vauquelinia 93
Sequoia 48 Thelesperma 173 Veratrum 194
Sequoiadendron 48 Theobroma 107, 219 Verbascum 150
Serenoa 189 Thermopsis 82 Verbena 160
Setaria 207, 209 Thesium 112 Vernonia 167
Shepherdia 97 Thlaspi 110 Veronica 152
Sibbaldia 92 Thrinax 189 Veronicastrum 152
Sidalcea 106 Thuja 48, 221 Viburnum 176
Silene 114 Thymus 157 Vicia 85
Silybum 166 Tiarella 66 Vigna 85
Sisymbrium 110 Tidestromia 117 Viguiera 172
Sisyrinchium 201 Tigridia 201 Villarsia 162
Sium 180 Tilia 107 Vinca 140
Smilacina 198 Tinantia 190 Viola 75
Smilax 195, 222 Tipularia 202 Viscum 112 TP’m a Medicine Woman, Too! —
Solanum 146, 148 Todea 42 Vitex 160 A Tale ofHerbal Wisdom & Personal Empowerment —
Solidago 174 Tofieldia 194 Vitis 67
Vittaria 44
for Budding Healers and Daydream Believers
Sonchus 164 Torilis 180
Written and illustrated by Jesse Wolf Hardin —
Sorbus 95 Torreya 49
Ww
Sorghum 207, 209 Townsendia 174
Toxicodendron 104
Im a Medicine Woman, Too! is a soulful
Sparganium 204 Waltheria 107
Spartium 82 Toxicoscordion 22 book of self discovery and personal empowerment
Washingtonia 189
Specularia 161 Trapa 69 Whipplea 125 for budding healers, as well as every kid heeding
Spergula 114 Trachelospermum 140 Wislizenia 108 a calling or pursuing a dream. Rhiannon is the |
Spergularia 114 Tradescantia 190 Wolffia 184 inspiration and model for this tale of realization
Sphaeralcea 106 Tragopogon 164 Wolfiella 184
Sphagnum 8 Trautvetteria 56 and growth, as she first resists believing she could —
Wyethia 172
Spinacia 118 Treculia 88 ever be a Medicine Woman like the herbalists and _
Spiraea 93 Tribulus 72 Xx healers she’s met... but then realizes the ways in
Spiranthes 202 Tricardia 144
Xanthium 172 which she is a the woman of power she hopes
Spirodela 184 Trientalis 130
Spondias 104 Trifolium 84 Xanthorhiza 56 to be.
Sporobolus 209 Triglochin 187 Xerophyllum 194 Tin a Medicine ve Too! is awonderful
Xylococcus 134
Stachys 158 Trigonella 84 book to connect children with herbal traditions.
Trillium 194
Stachytarpheta 160 Y The story encourages an ethic of healing, caring
Stanleya 110 Trimezia 201
Steironema 130 Triodanis 161 for other people, and honoring our elders. The
Yeatesia 156
Stellaria 114 Triosteum 176 Yucca 199,’ 216 _ delightful illustrations touch the reader at an
Stenandrium 156 Triphora 202 emotional level, compelling us to become healers
Stenanthium 22, 194 Triphysaria 154 Z, _ too. Available from ee
Stenosiphon 70 Tripleurospermum 169
Triteleia 197 Zannichellia 188
Stephanomeria 164
Triticum 207 Zauschneria 70 “I believe Im holdinganew children’s classic,
Stokesia 167
Streptopus 192 Trixis 167 Zea 207 a book that will be treasured by children—and their
Strophostyles 85 Trollius 56 Zelkova 87 _ parents—for years to come. This is a beautifully
Zephyranthes 196
Stuckenia 188 Tsuga 46
Zigadenus 22, 194
~ written story ofa childs quest for her own magical
Stylisma 145 Tulipa 192
Zingiber 178 gifts and her place in the circle of ‘medicine women.’
Suaeda 119 Turbina 145
Suckleya 119 Turricula 144 Zizania 209 Jesse Wolf Hardin has written a book that will
Swertia 139 Tussilago 170 Zizia 180 _ inspire children to fully believein themselves and to
Typha 204 Ziziphus 96
Symphoricarpos 176 reach for their own unique dreams”
Zygocactus 123
Symphoricarpus 216 —Rosemary Gladstar,
U Zygophyllum 72
Symphytum 142
Symplocarpus 184
Author of The Family Herbal
Ulex 82
Synthyris 152 Ulmus 87
Syringa 149
229
Index of Plants by Common Names
ball cactus 123 blue-eyed Mary 152 California bee plant 150 clearweed 90
A
baneberry 56 bluegrass 209 California bladderpod 108 cleavers 138
acacia 80 barberry 58 blue star 140 California nutmeg 49 clematis 56
acanthus 156 barley 207, 209 bluets 138 California pitcher plant cliff brake 44
Adam and Eve 202 barnyard grass 209 bogmat 184 129 cliffbush 125
adder’s tongue 40 barrel cactus 123 bog orchid 202 California poppy 60 cliff fern 45
adderstongue (lily) 192 Bartram’s ixia 201 bog rosemary 134 camphor tree 53 climbing dogbane 140
African rue 72 basil 157 boneset 167 campion 114 cloak fern 44
African violet 75 basswood 107 borage 142, 219 Canada mayflower 198 clover 84
agave 199 bastard toadflax 112 bouchea 160 canaigre 113 clubmoss 9, 38
agrimony 92 bay laurel 53 bouncing bet 114 canary grass 209 clustervine 145
alder 101 bay tree 53 box elder 103 cancer root 154 coastal stonecrop 64
alfalfa 84 bean 15, 85 _ boxthorn 148 candystick 137 cobra lily 129
algae 8 bean caper 72 bracken fern 43 canker root 56 cocklebur 172
algerita 58 bearberry 134 bractspike 156 canola 109 cockroach plant 140
alkali grass 209 bear breeches 156 brake fern 44 cantaloupe 98 cockscomb 117
alkaliweed 145 beargrass 194 bramble fern 43 caragana 83 coconut 189
Allegheny vine 61 bedstraw 138 breadfruit 88 caraway 179, 180 coffee bean tree 81
alligatorweed 117 bee balm 158 breadroot 83 cardinal flower 161 coltsfoor 170
almond 94 beeblossom 70 bride’s feathers 93 carnation 114 columbine 56
aloe 200 beech 100 brightwhite 164 carrion flower 195 comfrey 142, 219
alpine forget-me-not 142 beechdrops 154 bristlegrass 209 carrot 179, 180 common reed 209
alpinegold 173 beehive cactus 123 bristlemallow 106 carveseed 164 coneflower 172
alpine lily 192 beeplant 108 broccoli 109° cascara sagrada 96 coneplant 137
alumroot 66 beggarstick 142, 173 brodiaea 197 cashew 104 copper bush 133
alyssum 110 belladonna 146 bromegrass 208 castor bean 77 copper leaf 77
amaranth 117 bell pepper 146 brookfoam 66 Catalina ironwood 93 coralbean 85
amaryllis 196 bellwort 195 brooklime 152 catchweed 142 coral root 202
American hornbeam 101 bentgrass 208 brookweed 130 catnip 158 coriander 179
American mistletoe 112 bergamot 158 broom 82 catstongue 160 cork oak 100
amole 199 betony 158 broom crowberry 133 cattail 204 corkscrew plant 153
andromeda 134 bilberry 134 broomrape 154 cauliflower 109 corn 15, 207
anemone 56 bindweed 145 brown-eyed Susan 173 cayenne 146 corncockle 114
angelica 180 birch 101 brown lily 192 ceanothus 96 cornelian cherry 124
anise 179 bird-of-paradise tree 81 Brussel sprouts 109 celandine 60 cornflower 166
anoda 105 bird’s beak 154 bryony 98 celery 179 cornsalad 175
Apache plume,92 bird’s foot trefoil 84 buckbean 162 celestial lily 201 corydalis 61
apple 95 birthroot 194 buckbrush 96, 216 centaury 139 cosmos 173
apple of Peru 148 birthwort 51 buckeye 102 chaff ower 117 cota 173
apricot 94 biscuitroot 180 buckthorn 96, 216 chamomile 169 cotoneaster 95
arbor-vitae 48 bistort 113 buckwheat 113 chaparral 72 cotton 105
Arizona poppy 72 bitterbrush 93 buffaloberry 97 chayote 98 cotton flower 117
Arizona rosewood 93 bittercress 110 buffalobur 148 cheat grass 208 cotton grass 206
arnica 171 bitternut 99 buffalo nut 112 checkermallow 106 cottonrose 168
arrow arum 184 bitterroot 120 bugbane 56 cheeseweed 106 cotton thistle 166
arrowgrass 187 bittersweet 148 bugleweed 158 cherry 94, 215 cottonwood 76
arrowhead 17, 183 blackberry 92 bugseed 119 cherry palm 189 cow cockle 114
arrowleaf balsamroot 171 blackberry lily 201 bulrush 206 chervil 179 + cow parsnip 180, 218
arroyo fameflower 120 black cohosh 56 bunchberry 124 chestnut 100 cow peas 85
artichoke 163, 166 black-eyed peas 85 bunchflower 194 chia 158 cowwheat 154
arum 184 black haw 176 bundleflower 80 chick pea 85 coyote mint 157, 158
ash 149 black locust 83 burdock 166 chickweed 114 crabgrass 209
asparagus 197 black medic 84 burhead 183 chicory 164, 218 crabweed 88
aspen 76 bladder fern 45 burnet 92 chili pepper 146 cranberry 134
asphodel 194 bladdermallow 106 bur-reed 204 chinchweed 170 cranefly 202
aster 174 bladderpod 110 bush anenome 125 Chinese lantern 148 creasy greens 110
astilbe 66 bladderwort 153 bush violet 146 chinquapin 100 creeping cucumber 98
Aunt Lucy 144 blanket flower 173 butterbur 170 chives 196 creeping water parsnip 180
autumn olive 97 blazing star 126, 167 buttercup 12, 17, 56 chocolate 107 creosote bush 72
avens 92 bleeding heart 61 butterfly bush 150 chokeberry 95 crepe myrtle 69
avocado 53 bloodleaf 117 butternut 99 Christmasberry 95 crested wheatgrass 208
ayenia 107 bloodroot 60 butterwort 153 Christmas cactus 123 crosslower 110
azalea 133 blue beech 101 button bush 138 chrysanthemum 169 croton 77
bluebell 142 buzzy lizzy 127 ' chufa 206 crowberry 133
B cigar flower 69 crown-of-thorns 77
blueberry 2, 134
blueberry climber 67 ¢ cilantro 179 crown vetch 82
baby blue eyes 144
blue buttons 175 cinnamon 53 cucumber 98
baby’s breath 114 cabbage 109
blue camas 199, 214 cinnamon fern 42 cudweed 168
babystars 128 cacao 107
bachelor’s buttons 166 blue cohosh 58 cinquefoil 92 Culver'’s root 152
cactus 123
Baja birdbush 134 blue dicks 197 clammy weed 108 cumin 179
calicofower 161
bald cypress 48 blue-eyed grass 201 clarkia 70 cupflower 148
California bay tree 53
230
currant 65 F fogfruit 160 grouse whortleberry 2 Indian pink 114
cycad 10 foldwing 156 gumweed 174 Indian pipe 137
cypress 48 fagonbushes 72
forget-me-not 142 Indian plum 94
fairy bells 192, 195 forsythia 149 H
D fairy duster 80 Indian potato 180
fournwort 156 Indian rhubarb 66
fairy slipper 202 four o'clock 122 hackberry 87, 89
daffodil 196 indigo bush 83
false alyssum 110 hairgrass 209
daisy 169, 174 foxglove 152, 216 insideout flower 58
false bindweed 145 Halberd fern 45
damasonium 183 foxtail 209 iodine bush 119
false bugbane 56 harebell 161
dandelion 12, 164, 214, fringed fern 45 ints, <20i =
false cloak fern 44 hare’s ear mustard 110
218 fringetree 149 ironweed 167
false dandelion 164 hawksbeard 164
date palm 189 frogbit 186 ironwood 101
false day flower 190 fumitory 61
hawkweed 164
day flower 190 falsé dragonhead 158 hawthorn 95
ivy 178
day lily 200 false flax 110
fuzzybean 85
hay-scented fern 43
dead nettle 158 J
false foxglove 154 G hazelnut 101
death camas 194
false garlic 196 heartleaf wild ginger 51 jackfruit 88
deathcamas 22 garbanzo bean 85
false hellebore 194 heath 133 Jack-in-the-pulpit 184
deercabbage 162 ~ false holly 148 garden pea 85 heather 133 Jacob’s ladder 128
deer’s foot 58 garlic 196, 218
false horsemint 158 hedgehog cactus 123 jade plant 64
deer’s tongue 139 gayfeather 167 hedge hyssop 152, 216
false huckleberry 133 jagged chickweed 114
delphinium 56 false indigo 83 gentian 139 hedge nettle 158 jalapeno 146
desert dandelion 164 false lily-of-the-valley 198 geranium 68 hedge parsley 180 jasmine 149, 221
desert lily 199 false mallow 106 germander 157 heliotrope 142, 144 Jerusalem artichoke
desertpeony 167 false miterwort 66 German madwort 142 helleborine 202 172, 214
desert savior 64 giant hyssop 158 hemlock 179
false nettle 90 jewelweed 127
desert snapdragon 152 false pennyroyal 158 giant pigweed 172 hemlock tree 46 Jimsonweed 148
desert sweet 93 false pickerelweed 191 giant sequoia 48 hemp 89 Joe Pye weed 167
devil’s club 178 false ragweed 172 gilia 128 hempnettle 158 Johnson grass 209
devilwood 149 false rue anemone 56 ginger 51, 178 henbane 148 joint fir 49
dewdrops 160 false solomon seal 198 ginkgo 10 henbit 158 joint grass 4]
dill 179 false spirea 66 ginseng 178 henna tree 69 Joshua tree 199
dock 113 ~ false spleenwort 45 glacier lily 192 hesperochiron 144 Judas tree 81
dodder 145 false toadflax 112 glademallow 106 hibiscus 106 juniper 48
dogbane 140 false twayblade 202 glasswort 119 hickory 99
dog-tooth violet 192 false yucca 199 globe amaranth 117 hideseed 144 K
dogweed 170 fameflower 120 globe flower 56 highbush cranberry 176
dogwood 124 globemallow 106 kale 109
fanwort 50 hog peanut 85
dong quai 180 goatsbeard 164 kalmiopsis 133
fawn lily 192 hog plum 104
Douglas fir 46 keckiella 152
featherbells 194 goatweed 152 hole-in-the-sand plant 170
draperia 144 goji berry 148 kelseya 92
featherfoil 130 holly fern 45
dropseed 209 goldenaster 174 Kentucky coffee bean 81
felwort 139 hollyhock 105
dryad 93 kinnikinnick 134
fendlerbush 125 golden club 184 honeydew 98
drymary 114 goldeneye 172 kittentail 152
fennel 179, 221 honey locust 81 “9
duck lettuce 186 golden pea 82 knapweed 166
fenugreek 84 honeysuckle 176
duckmeat 184 knotgrass 114
fern 9 golden polypody 43 honeysweet 117
duckweed 184 knotweed 113
fescue 209 goldenrod 174 hop-hornbeam 101
Dudleya 64 goldenseal 56 kochia 119
fetterbush 134 hop sage 119
dusty maiden 172 kohlrabi 109
feverwort 176 golden stars 197 hopniss 85
kudzu vine 85
Dutchman’s breeches 61 fiddleleaf 144 gold fern 44 hops vine 89
Dutchman's pipe 51 fiddleneck 142 gold thread 56 horehound 157, 158 Lb
dwarf flax 78 fiddlewood 160 gooseberry 65 hornbeam 101
dwarf gentian 139 field chickweed 114 goosefoot 118 horned pondweed 188 Labrador tea 133
dwarf mistletoe 112 fiestaflower 144 gorse 82 hornpoppy 60 lace fern 44, 45
dyer’s woad 110 figwort 150 grape 67 hornwort 8, 54 ladies’ tresses 202
filbert 101 grape fern 40 horse chestnut 102, 216 lady fern 45
EB grass of Parnassus 66 horsemint 158
fir 46 lady slipper 202
fire-cracker flower 197 grasspink 202 horseradish 109, 218 lady’s mantle 92
eggplant 146, 148
fireweed 70 grass widow 201 horsetail 9, 41 lamb’s quarters 118
elderberry 176
firmoss 38 gravel ghost 164 houndstongue 142, 219 lancewood 53
elecampane 168
five eyes 148 greenbrier 195 huckleberry 2, 134 langloisia 128
elephant head 154
flame flower 120 greenbright 152 husk tomato 148 lantana 160
elephant’s foot 167
flannelbush 107 greenthread 173 hydrangea 125 - larch 46
elf orpine 64
flatsedge 206 green violet 75 hyssop 158 larkspur 56
elm 87
flax 78 gromwell 142 laurel 133
enchanter’s nightshade 70 I
fleabane daisy 174 ground cherry 148 laurel sumac 104
endive 163, 164
floating heart 162 groundcone 154 lavender 157
epazote 118 incense cedar 48
flowering ferns 42 ground ivy 158 lead plant 83
ergot fungus 207 Indian breadroot 216
flowering quillwort 187 ground nut 85 lead tree 80
European bay laurel 53 Indian cucumber 192
flowering rush 182 ground plum 83 leather fern 44
evening primrose 70 Indian mallow 105
fly poison 194 groundsel 170, 219 leatherleaf 134
everlasting 168 Indian paintbrush 154
flyweed 133 ground smoke 70 leatherpetal 64
eyebright 154 Indian physic 93
leechbush 112
23.1
leeks 196 millet 207, 209 Oregon myrtle 53 poison oak 104 rhododendron 133
lemonade berry 104 miner's candle 142 oryctes 148 poison sumac 104 rhubarb 113, 216, 217
lemon grass 209 miner's lettuce 120 osage orange 88 poisontree 104 ribbon fern 43
lentil 85 mint 157, 158 osha 180 polypody 43 rice 207
leopard lily 192 mission manzanita 134 osoberry 94 pomegranate 69 rice grass 208, 209
leptarrhena 66 mistletoe 112 ostrich fern 45 pond lily 50 rock brake 44
lesser water plantain 183 mist maiden 144 owl clover 154 pond spice 53 rockcap fern 43
lettuce 163, 164 miterwort 66 oxeye daisy 169 pondweed 188 rock cress 110
lichens 8 mock orange 125 ponysfoot 145 rocket 110
licorice weed 152 mombin 104 P poodle-dog bush 144 rocket salad 110
lignonberry 134 monkey flower 150 poplar 76 rock jasmine 130
painted tongue 146 rock mat 93
lignum vitae 72 monkshood 56
palm 189 poppy 60
lilac 149 moonwort 40 poppymallow 105 rock trumpet 140
palmetto 189 rose 3, 92
lily 192 Mormon tea 49 poreleaf 170
palo verde 81 roselings 190
lily-ofthe-valley 198, 216 morning glory 145 porterella 161
pansy 75 rosemallow 106
linanthus 128 moschatel 176 potato 146, 148
paper mulberry 88 rosemary 157
linden 107 mosquito fern 42 poverty weed 119
parsley 179 rosewood 93
lip fern 44 moss 8 prairie clover 83
parsnip 179, 180 rotala 69
lippia 160 moss campion 114 prairie coneflower 172
partridge berry 138 rubberweed 173
little rose 92 moss rose 120 prickly lettuce 164
partridge foot 92 rush 205
liveforever 64 motherwort 158 prickly pear 123
pasque flower 56 Russian olive 97
liverleaf 56 mountain ash 95 prickly poppy 60
peach 94 Russian pigweed 118
liverwort 8 mountain avens 93 Pride of Rochester 125
pear 95, 215. Russian thistle 119
lobelia 161 mountain balm 144 primrose 130
pearlflower 161 rye 207
locoweed 79, 83 mountain heath 133 primrose-willow 70
pearlwort 114 rye grass 207
locust tree 83 mountain mahogany 93 prince's pine 136
pearly everlasting 168
loosestrife 69, 130 mountain misery 93 prince’s plume 110
pecan 99 S
lopseed 150 mountain sorrel 113 privet 149
pellitory 90
loquat 95 mouse ear 164 propeller flower 201 sacred bamboo 58
pennycress 110
lotus 50 mouse-ear cress 110 pumpkin 98 saffron 201
pennyroyal 158, 213
lousewort 154 mousetail 56 pumpkins 98 sage 157, 158
penstemon 152
lovage 180 mud plantain 191 puncture vine 72
sagebrush 163, 169
peony 63
lupine 82 mudwort 150 purple coneflower 172 saguaro 123
peppermint 157, 158
muilla 197 purslane 120 sainfoin 82
M pepperweed 110
mulberry 88 pussypaws 120
salal 134
pequin 146
mule’s ears 172 pussytoes 168 salmonberry 92
madrone 134 periwinkle 140
mullein 150 pygmyflower 86
magnolia 12, 52 Peruvian pepper tree 104 salsify 164
mums 169 pyramidflower 107 saltbush 118
ma huang 49 petunia 146, 148
musclewood 101 pyrola 136
maidenhair 44 peyote 123 saltlover 119
muskmelon 98
mallow 106 phacelia 144 sandcarpet 114
mustard 109, 110, 218 Q sand heath 133
pheasant’s eye 56, 216
N phlox 128 quackgrass 209 sand lily 199
man of the earth 145 pickerelweed 191 Queen Anne’s lace 180 sandpaper plant 126
manroot 98 nailwort 114 pickleweed 119 queen's cup 192 sand spurry 114
manzanita 134 nannyberry 176 pigmy pipes 137 quillwort 39 sand verbena 122
maple 103 Navajo tea 173 pigmy weed 64 _ quince 95 sandwort 114
marble berry 190 nectarine 94 pignut 99 quinoa 118 sanicle 180
mare's tail 152 needle grass 208 pigweed 117 sarsaparilla 195
marigold 170 needle palm 189 pimento 146 R saskatoon 95
marijuana 89 netvein hollyfern 45 pimpernel 130 sassafras 53
rabbitbrush 174
mariposa lily 192 nightshade 148 pincushion flower 175 savine 48
radish 109, 218
marjoram 157 ninebark 93 pincushion plant 128 savory 157
ragweed 172
marsh dewflower 190 nipplewort 164 pine 46 saw palmetto 189
ragwort 170
marsh felwort 139 nodding caps 202 pineapple weed 169 saxifrage 66
rannoch-rush 187
marshmallow 105 nutmeg 49 pinedrops 137 scalebud 164
raspberry 92
marsh marigold 56 pinefoot 137 scarlet gilia 128
O rattle box 82
marshweed 152 pinesap 137 scarlet trumpet 128
rattlesnake plantain 202
matweed 117 pink 114 scorpionweed 144
oak 100 rattlesnakeroot 164
mayapple 58 pink root 92 Scotch broom 82
oak fern 45 rattleweed 154
mayweed 169 pipsissewa 136 Scotch thistle 166
oats 207 red bay 53 scouring rush 41]
meadow rue 56 piratebush 112
okra 105 redbud 81
meadowsweet 93 pistachio 104 screw bean 80
oleander 140 red cedar 48
menodora 149 pitcher plant 129 scurf pea 83
oleaster 97 red maids 120
mermaid weed 63 plantain 15, 150 seaberry 97
one-flowered wintergreen red root 96
mesquite 80 plum 94 seablush 175
136 red spider lily 196
Mexican jumping bean 77 plumeseed 164 ‘sea-buckthorn 97
onion 196, 214, 215 redstem 69
milkpea 85 plums 94 sea milkwort 130
onyxflower 114 redtop 208
milk thistle 166 poinsettia 77 seaside petunia 146
orache 118 redwood 48
milk vetch 83 pointloco 83 sedge 206 ;
orchid 202 resurrection fern 43
milkweed 141 poison hemlock 180 seepweed 119
Oregon grape 58 resurrection plant 39
milkwort 86 poison ivy 104 seepwillow 174
Ps4
sego lily 192 springparsley 180 tarragon 169 wandering
jew 190 woodvamp 125
self heal 158 spruce 46 tarweed 172 wapato 183 woollystar 128
‘senna 81, 216 spurge 77 teaberry 2 water arum 184 woolly sunflower 173
sensitive fern 45 spurred gentian 139 teasel 175 water cabbage 184 woollywhite 173
sensitive pea 81 spurry 114. thatch palm 189, water caltrop 69 wormwood 169, 221
serviceberry 95 squash 98 thesium 112 water carpet 66 wormseed 118
shageytuft 156 staggerbush 134 thimbleberry 92 watercress 109, 110 wrightwort 156
shamrock 73 St. Andrew's cross 74 thistle 166 water elm 87
sheep’s bit 161 starflower 130 thorn-apple 148 water fern 42, 44 We
shepherd’s purse 110 star fruit 73 thoroughwort 167 water hemlock
shield fern 45 starthistle 166 yampa 180
thorowax 180 L/S N21
shoestring fern 44 starwort 114 yarrow 163, 169
threefold 167 water horehound 158
shooting star 130 stingbush 126 yellowbell 192
threehearts 144 water howellia 161
shoreweed 150 stinging nettle 90 yellowcress 110
thyme 157 water hyacinth 191
shrubby yellowcrest 69 stinging serpent 126 yellowcrest 69
tickseed 173 waterhyssop 152
shrub verbena 160 stinking yew 49 yellowflax 78
tick trefoil 82 waterleaf 144
sibbaldia 92 stinkleaf 148 yellow pond lily 50
Timothy grass 209 water lily 50, 216
silkplant 90 stinkweed 108 tinytim 114 yellowroot 56
water meal 184
silverberry 97 stitchwort 114 toadflax 152 yerba de selva 125
watermelon 98
silverpuffs 164 St. John’s wort 74 tobacco 148 yerba santa 144
water milfoil 63
silverweed 92, 117 Stoke’s aster 167 yew 49
tobacco root 175 water nymph 186
skeletonweed 164 stonecrop 64 tomatillo 146 yucca 199, 216
water parsnip 180
skullcap 158 stoneseed 142 tomato 146, 148 water plantain 183 Zs
skunk cabbage 184 stork’s bill 68 touch-me-not 127 water shield 50
slender phlox 128 St. Peterswort 74 Townsend’s daisies 174 water starwort 152 zebrawood 104
slippery elm 87 strap fern 43 trailing arbutus 133
sloughgrass 208
waterweed 186 zephyrlily 196 ©
strawberry 92 trailplant 167 waterwheel plant 116 zizia 180
smartweed 113 stream orchid 202 transvaal daisy 167 waterwillow 156
smoketree 104 suckleya 119 tree mallow 106 wedgelet fern 43
smotherweed 119 sugarbowl 56 trumpet 128 western nettle 90
snake cotton 117 sugar cane 207 tuberose 199 wheat 207
snake fern 43 sumac 104 tulip 192 wheat grass 209
snakeherb 156 summer holly 134 tulip tree 52 whispering bells 144
snakeroot 86 sunbonnets 167 tumble mustard 110 white cedar 48
snakeweed 174 suncups 70 tupelo 124 white cockle’ 216
snapdragon 152 sundew. 116 turkeybeard 194 white heather 132
sneezeweed 173 sundrops 70 turkey mullein 77 whitetop 110
snoutbean 85 sunflower 163, 172 turnip 109 whitlow grass 110
snowball tree 176 sunnybell 199 turtlehead 152 widelip orchid 202
snowberry 176, 216 sun tubers 172 twayblade 202 wild buckwheat 113
snowdrop 196 swamp bay 53 twinflower 176 wild cucumber 98
snowflake 196 swamp lily 196 twinleaf 58 wild geranium 68
snow plant 137 swamp loosestrife 69 twinpod 110 wild ginger 51
soapberry 102 swampprivet 149 twinsorus fern 45 wild gourd 98
soap plant 199 swampweed 156 twisted stalk 192 wild hollyhock 106
soapwort 114, 216 sweet cicely 180 wild hyacinth 197
soldierweed 172 sweet clover 84, 216 U
wild indigo 82
Solomon's plume 198 sweet flag 182 wild licorice 83
Solomon's seal 198 uhaloa 107
sweetgrass 209 wild olive 149
sorrel 113 umbrellaleaf 58
sweetgum 62 wild petunia 156
sorrelvine 67 Utah fendlerbush 125
sweet pea 85 wild rice 207, 209
sotol 198 sweet pinesap 137 wild rye 209
Vv
sourwood 134 sweet potato 145 wild sarsaparilla’ 178
sowthistle 164 sweet spire 125 valerian 175 willow 76, 215
soybean 85 sweetvetch 82 vanilla 202 willowherb 70
Spanish broom 82 sweet William 114 vein fern 45 windmills 122
spearmint 157, 158 switch grass 209 velvetmallow 106 winged pigweed 119
spectacle fruit 108 sword fern 45 Venus fly trap 116 winterfat 118
speedwell 152 Syrian rue 72 Venus’ looking glass 161 wintergreen 134, 136
Sphagnum 8 sytinga 125 verbena 160 wirelettuce 164
spice bush 53 vervain 160 witchalder 62
spiderling 122 a vetch 83, 85 witch hazel 62
spiderwort 190 violet 75 wolfberry 148
tabasco 146
spike moss 39 Virginia creeper 67 woodbine 67
tackstem 164
spikenard 178 virgin’s bower 56 woodland beardtongue 152
tamarack 46
spike rush 206 woodland star 66
tamarind 81 W
spike sedge 206 wood lily 192
tanbark oak 100
spiny caper 108 wood nettle 90
tansy 169 wake robin 194
spiraea 93 woodrose 145
tansy mustard 110 wallflower 110
spleenwort 45 woodrush 205
tapioca 77 walnut 99
spring beauty 120 woodsorrel 73
233
Index to Plant Families and Subfamilies by Botanical Names
Plant families (-aceae) and subfamilies (-oideae) are often reclassified as one or the other, so try either suffix in this index.
A Cassiopoideae 132 Geraniaceae 68 Moraceae 88 S

Celastraceae 66 Gesneriaceae 75 Musaceae 189
Acanthaceae 156 Salicaceae 76
Cephalotaxaceae 49 Gomphrenoideae 117 Mutisioideae 167
Aceraceae 102 Salicornioideae 119
Ceratophyllaceae 54 Gramineae 207
Acoraceae 182 N Salviniaceae 42
Chenopodioideae 118 Grossulariaceae 65
Adiantaceae 44 Santalaceae 112
Cichorioideae 164 Guttiferae 74 Najadoideae 186
Adoxaceae 176 Sapindaceae 102
Cleomaceae 108 Nelumbonaceae 50
Agavoideae 199 H Sarcobataceae 118
Clusiaceae 74 Nitrariaceae 72
Alismaceae 183 Sarraceniaceae 129
Colchicaceae 195 Haloragaceae 63 Nolinoideae 198
Alismataceae 183 Saxifragaceae 66
Commelinaceae 190 Hamamelidaceae 62 Nyctaginaceae 122
Allioideae 196 Scheuchzeriaceae 187
Compositae 163 Hemerocallidoideae Nymphaeaceae 50
Altingiaceae 62 Scrophulariaceae 150
Convallariaceae 198 200 Nyssoideae 124
Amaranthaceae 117 Selaginellaceae 39
Convolvulaceae 145 Hippocastanaceae 102
Amaryllidaceae 196 O Smilacaceae 195
Corispermoideae 119 Hippuridaceae 152 Solanaceae 146
Amygdaloideae 93 Cornaceae 124 Huperziaceae 38 Oleaceae 149 Sparganiaceae 204
Anacardiaceae 104
Coryloideae 101 Hydrangeaceae 125 Onagraceae 70
Apiaceae 179 Sterculioideae 107
Crassulaceae 64 Hydrocharitaceae 186 Ophioglossaceae 40
Apocynaceae 140 Cruciferae 109
Strelitziaceae 189
Hydrophylloideae 144 Orchidaceae 202
Araceae 184 Suaedoideae 119
Cucurbitaceae 98 Hypericaceae 74 Orobanchaceae 154
Araliaceae 178
Cupressaceae 48 Osmundaceae 42 Ai
Arbutoideae 134
Cuscutaceae 145 I
Arecaceae 189 Oxalidaceae 73
Cyperaceae 206 Taxaceae 49
Aristolochiaceae 51 Tridaceae 201
FE Taxodiaceae 48
Asclepiadoideae 141 D Tsoetaceae 39
Tilioideae 107
Asparagaceae 197 Paeoniaceae 63 Tofieldiaceae 194
Dennstaedtiaceae 43 J Palmaceae 189
Asphodeloideae 200 Typhaceae 204
Dioscoreaceae 145 Juglandaceae 99 Palmae 189
Aspleniaceae 45
Dipsacaceae 175 Juncaceae 205 Papaveraceae 60 U
Asteraceae 163
Dracaenaceae 198 Juncaginaceae 187 Papilionaceae 79
Asteroideae 167 Ulmaceae 87
Droseraceae 116 Philadelphaceae 125
Averrhoaceae 73 Umbelliferae 179
Drosophyllaceae 116 L,
Azollaceae 42 Phrymaceae 150 Urticaceae 90
Dryadoideae 93 Labiatae 157 Pinaceae 46
B Dryopteridaceae 45 Plantaginaceae 150 Vv
Lamiaceae 157
Balsaminaceae 127 E Lauraceae 53 Poaceae 207
Vaccinioideae 134
Berberidaceae 58 Leguminosae 79 Podophyllaceae 58
Elaeagnaceae 97 Valerianaceae 175
Betulaceae 101 Lemnoideae 184 Polemoniaceae 128
Empetraceae 133 Verbenaceae 160
Boraginaceae 142 Lentibulariaveae 153 Polygalaceae 86
Ephedraceae 49 Violaceae 75
Brassicaceae 109 Liliaceae 192 Polygonaceae 113
Equisetaceae 41 Viscaceae 112
Brodiaeoideae 197 Linaceae 78 Polypodiaceae 43
Ericaceae 132 Vitaceae 67
Butomaceae 182 Loasaceae 126 Pontederiaceae 191
Ericoideae 133 Lobelioideae 161 Portulacaceae 120 W a
Cc Eriospermaceae 198 Lycopodiaceae 38 Potamogetonaceae 188

Euphorbiaceae 77 Primulaceae 130 Woodsiaceae 45
Cabombaceae 50 Lythraceae 69
Pteridaceae 44
Cactaceae 123 F M Pyroloideae 136
Caesalpinioideae 81
Fabaceae 79 Xanthorrhoeaceae
Calochortoideae 192 Magnoliaceae 52 R
Faboideae 82 200
Campanulaceae 161 Malvaceae 105
Fagaceae 100 Medeoloideae 192 Ranunculaceae 55
Camphorosmoideae 119 Z
Flacourtiaceae 76 Melanthiaceae 194 Rhamnaceae 96
Cannabaceae 89
Capparaceae 108
Fumarioideae 61 Menyanthaceae 162 Rosaceae 91 Zannichelliae 188
Caprifoliaceae 176 Mimosoideae 80 Rosoideae 92 Zingiberaceae
G
Carduoideae 166 Monotropoideae 137 Rubiaceae 138 Jd AVS
Caryophyllaceae 114 Gentianaceae 139 Montiaceae 120 Ruscaceae 198 Zygophyllaceae 72
234
Index to Plant Families and Subfamilies by Common Names
Highlighted names indicate good primary and secondary families for beginning botanists.
A Camphorosma 119 Hemp 89 Onion 196 Stonecrop 64

Cashew 104 Honeysuckle 176 Orchid 202 Sumac 104
Acanthus 156
Cattail 204 Horned Pondweed 188 Sundew 116
Adder’s Tongue 40
Cedar 48 Hornwort 54 Sunflower 163
Adoxa 176
Chicory 164 Horse Chestnut 102 Palm 189 Sweet Flag 182
Agave 199
Clubmoss 38 Horsetail 41 Parsley 179
Almond 93 a
Crowberry 133 Hydrangea 125 Pea-79
Amaranth 117
Cypress 48 Peony 63 Teasel 175
Amaryllis 196
Phlox 128 Thistle 166
Apple 95 D
Indian Cucumber 192 Pickerelweed 191 Touch-Me-Not 127
Arrowgrass 187
Dandelion 164 Indian Pipe 137 Pickleweed 119 Tupelo 124
Arrowhead 183
Arum 184
Day Lily 200 Iris 201 Pine 46
Vv
Dogbane 140 L Pink 114
Asparagus 197
Dogwood 124 Pitcher Plant 129 Valerian 175
Asphodel 200
Aster 163
Dryad 93 Laurel 53 Plantain 150 Verbena 160
Duckweed 184 Lily 192 Plum 94 Violet 75
Autumn Crocus 195
Dutchman's Pipe 51 Loasa 126 Polypod 43
WwW
B Lobelia 161 Pondweed 188
E
Loosestrife 69 Poppy 60 Walnut 99
Bald Cypress 48
Elm 87 Lopseed 150 Primrose 130 Water Fern 42
Barberry 58 Purslane 120
Evening Primrose 70 Lotus 50 Waterleaf 144
Basswood 107 Pyrola 136 Water Lily 50
Beargrass 198 F M
Water Milfoil 63
Beech 100
Fanwort 50 Madder 138
Q Water Nymph 186
Beeplant 108
Figwort 150 Madrone 134 Quillwort 39 Water Plantain 183
Birch 101
Flax 78 Magnolia 52 White Heather 132
Bird-of-
Flowering Rush 182 Maidenhair Fern 44 Willow 76
Paradise Tree 81
Four O’Clock 122 Mallow 105 Rannoch-Rush 187 Witch Hazel 62
Birthwort 51
Frogbit 186 Maple 103 Rose 91 Wood Fern 45
Bladderwort 153
Fumitory 61 Mayapple 58 Royal Fern 42 Woodsorrel 73
Bleeding Heart 61°
Milkweed 141 Rush 205
Blueberry 134 G Y
Milkwort 86
Borage 142 S
Gentian 139 Mimosa 80 Yew 49
Bracken Fern 43
Geranium 68 Miner’s Lettuce 120 Saint John’s Wort 74
Brodiaea 197
Ginseng 178 Mint 157 Sandalwood 112
Broomrape 154
Globe Amaranth 117 Mistletoe 112 Saxifrage 66
Buckbean 162
Gooseberry 65 Mormon Tea 49 Sedge 206
Buckthorn 96
Goosefoot 117 Morning Glory 145 Seepweed 119
Buckwheat 113
Gourd 98 Mulberry 88 Sego 192
Bugseed 119
Grape 67 Mustard 109 Senna 81
Bunchflower 194
Grapefern 40 Mutisia 167 Soapberry 102
Bur-reed 204
Grass 207 Sphagnum 8
Buttercup 55. N
Grass Tree 200 Spiderwort 190
C Greenbrier 195 Nightshade 146 Spike Moss 39
Nitre Bush 72 Spleenwort 45
Cacao 107 H Spurge 77
Cactus 123 O Staff Tree 66
Harebell 161
Caesalpinia 81 Star Fruit 73
Hazelnut 101 Oleaster 97
Caltrop 72 Stinging Nettle 90
Heath 132 Olive 149
23>
Also by Thomas J. Elpel
Shanleya’s Quest
- A Botany Adventure for Kids Ages 9 to 99
By Thomas J. Elpel Illustrated by Gloria Brown
In a world where time is a liquid that falls as rain upon the land, young
Shanleya paddles her canoe out to the Tree Islands to learn plant traditions of
her people. Each island is home to a separate family of plants and an unfor-
gettable Guardian with lessons to teach about the identification and uses of
those plants. Shanleyas Quest is a truly unique educational book that presents
botanical concepts and plant identification skills in an easy and fun meta-
phorical format for children, as well as for adults who are young at heart.
Read the book. Play the game! hated
Both are available from www.hopspress.com. Bcithh seit
‘T own both Shanleya’s Quest and Botany in a Day and I can't say wk, *
et aa,Mc f
enough great things about them. I teach mostly 3rd to 8th graders, and my terN :
goal is primarily to help my students establish a relationship with plants. Your
materials are incredibly supportive of that, not to mention engaging, effective
and fun.”
—Katharine K.
Minneapolis, Minnisota
Foraging the Mountain West

Gourmet Edible Plants, Mushrooms, and Meats
By Thomas J. Elpel and Kris Reed
There's food in them thar hills! There is also food in the valleys,
meadows, swamps, and all around town, too... maybe even in your
own backyard. Foraging the Mountain West is a guide to harvest-
ing and celebrating nature's abundance. Reach out and explore the
world with your taste buds. Discover new delights you will never
find at the store. Connect with nature on a deeper level by meet-
ing, greeting, and eating plants, fungi, and creatures that share your
neighborhood. Become a little more self-sufficient, and a lot more
aware.
Foraging the Mountain West is a hands-on manual for identifying,
harvesting, and preparing real food. It is written for the backpacker
who would rather bring more knowledge and fewer provisions into
the wilderness. It is intended for the happy homemaker who wants
to eat well and spend less. It is ideal for the creative chef who wants
to explore new ingredients and impress diners with novel dishes.
The authors brought together years of experience and fun to
show you, a prospective forager, what, when, where, why, and how
to gather wild and feral, plants, mushrooms, and neglected wayside
crops. Beyond plants, this is a guide for successful fishing with-
out a pole, hunting without weapons, and even shopping without
money. This book will help you fill your freezer and satiate your
appetite.
Foraging the Mountain West. will help you dream in winter, cleanse in spring, forage in summer, and gorge in
fall. The book includes hundreds of vivid color photos detailing every essential aspect of foraging. This guide is not
meant to sit on your coffee table. It is meant to start a revolution! Available Spring 2014 from www.hopspress.com.
¥#
°
Quick Guide to ©Leaf Terms

Illustrations by Bonnie Andrich.
HOPS Press, LLC, 2013.
Leaf Arrangement
SS Hj
basal leaves alternate leaves opposite leaves whorled leaves
OOUVD NESS
Common Leaf Shapes
oval round lance-like heart-shaped arrowhead _pinnately-lobed _palmately lobed
OW 4keev
Leaf Divisions: Each drawing shows one leaf. Leaves are variously divided into smaller leaflets.
simple bifoliate trifoliate digitate odd-pinnate pinnate tendril

(or ternate) (or palmately divided)
even-pinnate bipinnate biternate triternate
Stipules: A pair of leaf-like) Bract: A term applied to any form of modified leaf.
appendages at the base of a visti
leaf stem. yi amens
is Hy
sepal-like bracts petal-like bracts
stipules aye
Botany IN A DAY»
The Patterns Method of Plant Identification ¥ * 4
ia
Looking for a faster, easier, and engaging way to ok 1 5
identify plants? Related plants have similar character-

istics, and they often have similar uses. Rather than
learning new plants one-at-a-time, it is possible to
ae,
0.01 00 92542991 aA
learn them by the hundreds, based on plant family.

patterns.
Each family of related plants has unique
patterns for identification. Learn to recognize these
patterns, and discover them again and again in the
plants you encounter. It is possible to instantly rec-
ognize a plant never before seen, and in many cases,
to know its edible or medicinal properties on the
spot—even before you have identified it down to Hee f J stent
the species!
Botany in a Day is changing the way people
learn about plants. A one-day tutorial introduces
eight of the world’s most common plant families, ap-
plicable to more than 45,000 species of plants. Master
these eight patterns and have the skills to recognize an as-
tonishing number of plants on any continent. Add to your Woods’ rose
repertoire by keying out entirely unknown plants and learning Rosa woodsii
Rose Family
additional family patterns.
Botany in a Day is principally written for North America, but
used and adored by readers all over the world. It is used as a textbook in numerous universities, high
schools, and herbal schools. This book is widely used in nature programs and promoted in national
parks. Botany in a Day is your passport connection to nature and discovering the amazing world of
plants!
“Botany in a Day truly has the potential to become one of the most use-
ful botany and herbal primers ever written.”
r —Peter Gail,
Author of TheDandelion Celebration
— Reminder —
It is illegal to pick wildflowers in our national parks.
Please save them for others to enjoy.
:
|
;
oe UNE
j Wise
a
AZ ISBN 978-1892784353
a 53000 >
Also watch for: MA |
HI
Shanleya’s Quest: HOPS Press, LLC |
A Botany Adventure Pony, Montana 1 |
for Kids Ages 9 to 99 www.hopspress.com
wwwwildflowers-and-weeds.com 9" 781892" 784353

Botany in A Day - The Patterns - Elpel, Thomas J

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Botany in A Day - The Patterns - Elpel, Thomas J

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANEThe Patterns

PLANT Famities oF Nort America

~———After fertilization, the ovule

Snore——— Tip: To remember which is male and

Petals/corolla (The corolla is the sum of all petals).

A complete flower has sepals, petals, stamens and a pistil.

Bisexual flowers have both male and female parts.

Progressive Fusion of the Pistils

HOPS Press, LLC

Copyright: 1st Edition. Comb bound. 1996. 25 copies printed.

Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Includes bibliographical references and index.

OY Botany in a Day is printed in the USA HOPS Press, LLC

Looking for an online community of plant enthusiasts?

Optimal Range of this Book

Plant Names and Classification

In other words, sometimes it is more im-

additional levels of classification, some with useful Buckthorn Family

ERA P ERIOD Mit YEARS EVOLUTIONARY EVENT

Neo-Proterozoic 570-900 First multi-celled life, and first herbivores.

pink lady-slipper “A& Usnea barbata

The Land Plants

Spore Plants without a Vascular system

Spore Plants with a Vascular System Reproduction with Spores

Ferns and their Allies male fern :

stiff clubmoss field horsetail

Flowering Plants Water Lily a

fleshy fruits, nuts, and grains.

more details on floral parts.) Despite being recently evolved (geologically

Three Domains and Six Kingdoms

Archaea Domain Bacteria Domain

Ancestral Life Forms

Variation in the Plant Kingdom

Seeds totally enclosed inside the ovary ;

Monocots, Dicots, and Eudicots

Is your Flowering Plant a Dicot /Eudicot or a Monocot?

Rose Phylogenetic Tree of the Flowering Plants

eudicots ore Hage Lily

page 51 . page 182 page 189 m Pages 190 - 191

ancestral flowering plant

From Simple to Specialized Flowers figwort

cA Simple Flowers Specialized Flowers ae,

Composite Flowers: Aster Family

Progressive Fusion of the Pistils

One carpel can produce one or more seeds.

Flowers with more ancestral traits, such as these

This flower has More evolved flowers have reduced numbers

lf the carpels, styles, and stigmas are

YY ~A flower with a compound pistil from

Learning Plants by Families

Identifying the Unknown

aromatic. The stem is visibly four-sided.

Lily Family and its Allies

Roses have 5 petals, typically with

often see a fuzzy center consisting of partially

Problems in Taxonomic Paradise

How to Use the Keys

2. Is your plant a monocot or a dicot?

3. Is your dicot plant a member of the Aster family?

4. Profile your dicot flower and key it out.

Profile your flower Before you use the Keys

Be sure to turn to the inside front and back covers

2 styles suggest style with 4 stigmas